The shoulder is the most mobile joint in the body. It is surrounded by two sleeves of muscle: the outer sleeve, or deltoid muscle; and the inner sleeve, or rotator…

The knee is a synovial hinge joint, supported and stabilized by powerful muscular and ligamentous forces. It is superficial on three sides (anterior, medial, and lateral), and approaches to it…

Operations on the humerus are relatively infrequent and generally involve the open reduction and internal fixation of fractures. All approaches to the humerus are potentially dangerous because the major nerves…

Operations on the femur are extremely common. The lateral approach to the proximal femur, which is used to treat the growing number of patients who have intertrochanteric hip fractures, is…

The surgical anatomies of the two bones of the forearm differ significantly. The ulna has a subcutaneous border that extends for its entire length; the bone can be reached simply…

Pelvis The pelvis is a complex bony structure with interconnecting ligaments. It consists of the two innominate bones, which articulate anteriorly with each other at the pubic symphysis and posteriorly…

The tibia and fibula are approximately equal in length but are different in structure and function. The tibia is large, transmits most of the stress of walking, and has a…

The elbow is a hinged joint supported by strong collateral ligaments. The key neurovascular structures running down the arm pass anterior and posterior to the joint. The medial and lateral…

Although a wide variety of external fixators can be constructed, they all consist of only two elements. Pins are inserted into the bone to anchor the external fixator to the…