Imaging technologies of the spinal discs
Key points • Various imaging modalities exist to assess the intervertebral disc. • Classification grading schemes have been proposed to assess the morphological and structural changes of the disc. •…
Intervertebral disc degeneration
Key points • The process of intervertebral disc (IVD) degeneration consists of gradual structural and biochemical changes that may lead to pain and disability. • IVD degeneration is multifaceted, mediated…
Animal models to study spinal intervertebral disc phenotypes
Key points • Animal models are critical for understanding disease mechanisms and developing new therapies. • Species differences in intervertebral disc size, tissue composition, and cellular content associate with distinct…
Biomechanical models to study spinal phenotypes
Key points • Intervertebral disc (IVD) degeneration involves endplate-driven and annulus-driven phenotypes that accumulate and interact with progressive degeneration and eventual collapse of the IVD. • IVD injuries result in…
Biomechanics of the spine
Key points • The spine protects the spinal cord and provides mechanical strength to the trunk while allowing for a certain amount of flexibility. • The intervertebral disc has a…
Lower limb
41 Joints of the lower limb, Articulationes membri inferioris 41.1 Bony connections of the pelvic girdle, Juncturae cinguli pelvici Name Type of connection Types of movements Sacroiliac joint Articulatio sacroiliaca…
Cranial nerves
58 Cranial nerves, overview a N. olfactorius [I] b N. opticus [II] c N. oculomotorius [III] d N. trochlearis [IV] e N. trigeminus [V] • N. ophthalmicus [V/1] • N….
Upper limb
23 Joints of the upper limb, Articulationes membri superioris 23.1 Joints of the shoulder girdle Name of joint Type of joint Types of movements Medial clavicular joint Articulatio sternoclavicularis, Articulationes…
