Biomechanics of Aging Spine Hassan Serhan Vijay Goel From a biomechanical perspective, several skeletal components working in harmony allow us the day-to-day human experiences of walking, running, and, in some…

Evaluation of Spinal Balance Munish C. Gupta Evaluating a patient with spinal deformity for coronal and sagittal balance is as important as the radiographic evaluation of coronal and sagittal alignment….

Biologics in Spine Arthrodesis Joseph A. Weiner Wellington K. Hsu Spine arthrodesis is frequently performed in the treatment of spine trauma, tumors, and complex degenerative disorders. With an estimated 413,000…

Zygapophysial Joint Blocks and Radiofrequency Ablation Marzena Buzanowska William Bonner Yejia Zhang Christopher T. Plastaras Zygapophysial joints (z-joints, also known as facet joints) are true synovial joints in the spine…

Epidural Steroids Injection: Basics and Updates Christine El-Yahchouchi Salim M. Hayek Corning first described the delivery of drugs in the epidural space in 1885, using the local anesthetic cocaine.1 Lievre…

Neuromonitoring and the Spinal Cord Douglas A. Hollern Gregory D. Schroeder Alan S. Hilibrand Spinal cord injury (SCI) and nerve root injury are feared complications in spine surgery, and spinal…

Spinal Navigation Options (Computer-Assisted Navigation) Abdulrazzaq Alobaid Although there is no consensus and established gold standard surgical approach to the spine, it is acceptable to state that the conventional open…

Radiation Exposure in Minimally Invasive Spine Surgery Christina Kane Christian P. DiPaola Minimally invasive spine surgery (MISS) procedures typically require increased use of intraoperative imaging, which may include x-ray or…

History of Minimally Invasive Spinal Surgery Gregory D. Schroeder D. Greg Anderson Although the earliest written descriptions of the surgical treatment for spinal pathology were reported by Paulus of Aegina…

Principles of Minimally Invasive Spine Surgery Chadi Tannoury Tony Tannoury D. Greg Anderson Spine surgery is a field that is rapidly growing alongside advances in imaging, surgical techniques, and instrumentation….