Vertebral bone marrow (Modic) changes
Key points • Modic changes are subchondral and vertebral bone marrow changes in conjunction with intervertebral disc degeneration, and they are classified into three categories (types 1, 2, and 3)…
Vertebral endplate abnormalities, defects, and changes
Key points • The vertebral endplate is the key regulator of disc nutrient and oxygen transport. • The endplate is composed of an inner bony and an outer cartilaginous layer…
Spinal alignment
Key points • Global spinal balance is equally important as it is a dynamic process that includes the spine along with compensatory mechanisms consisting of the hips, and ankles. •…
Facet joints
Key Points • Pathologic changes seen in facet joint degeneration include fibrillation, joint space narrowing, articular cartilage thinning, subchondral bone sclerosis, osteophytosis, and development of juxta-facet cysts. • Risk factors…
Paraspinal muscles
Key points • Erector spinae, lumbar multifidus, quadratus lumborum, and psoas major are commonly investigated paraspinal muscles. • Magnetic resonance imaging and computed tomography provide high-quality muscle images for the…
High-intensity zones and annular tears
Key points • High-intensity zones (HIZs) represent a hyperintense signal on T2-weighted MRI in the region of the annulus fibrosus and can be used to represent annular tears. • HIZs…
Anatomy of the spine
Key points • Intimate relationships between osseous, nervous, vascular, and soft tissue structures of the spine are critical to normal function. • A thorough understanding of these relationships is essential…
Disc space narrowing and osteophytes
Key points • Disc space narrowing and osteophyte formation are features of the general spine condition known as intervertebral disc (IVD) degeneration • IVD degeneration is an age-related condition •…
Imaging technologies of the spinal discs
Key points • Various imaging modalities exist to assess the intervertebral disc. • Classification grading schemes have been proposed to assess the morphological and structural changes of the disc. •…
Intervertebral disc degeneration
Key points • The process of intervertebral disc (IVD) degeneration consists of gradual structural and biochemical changes that may lead to pain and disability. • IVD degeneration is multifaceted, mediated…
