Anatomy of the spine
Key points • Intimate relationships between osseous, nervous, vascular, and soft tissue structures of the spine are critical to normal function. • A thorough understanding of these relationships is essential…
Intervertebral disc degeneration
Key points • The process of intervertebral disc (IVD) degeneration consists of gradual structural and biochemical changes that may lead to pain and disability. • IVD degeneration is multifaceted, mediated…
Imaging technologies of the spinal discs
Key points • Various imaging modalities exist to assess the intervertebral disc. • Classification grading schemes have been proposed to assess the morphological and structural changes of the disc. •…
Biomechanical models to study spinal phenotypes
Key points • Intervertebral disc (IVD) degeneration involves endplate-driven and annulus-driven phenotypes that accumulate and interact with progressive degeneration and eventual collapse of the IVD. • IVD injuries result in…
Animal models to study spinal intervertebral disc phenotypes
Key points • Animal models are critical for understanding disease mechanisms and developing new therapies. • Species differences in intervertebral disc size, tissue composition, and cellular content associate with distinct…
Biomechanics of the spine
Key points • The spine protects the spinal cord and provides mechanical strength to the trunk while allowing for a certain amount of flexibility. • The intervertebral disc has a…
Sacral lateral branch nerve block
Introduction Sacroiliac joint (SIJ) pain is one of the most common causes of axial low back pain. Studies have shown that 13% to 30% of chronic axial low back pain…
Anatomy of the sacroiliac joint
The sacroiliac joint (SIJ) is a highly complex joint that provides stability and support to the upper body ( Fig. 1.1 ). The specific structure and tightness of the fibrous…
Hematoma Block
Overview 1. A hematoma block may be performed anywhere an acute fracture is present. 2. Typically, hematoma blocks are performed in regions where it is impractical to perform selective nerve…
Basic Principles of Analgesia
Overview Review of Local Anesthetics 1. The two most commonly used local anesthetics are lidocaine (Xylocaine) and bupivacaine (Marcaine, Sensorcaine) ( Table 1.1 ). a. Recent studies have suggested that…
