Anomalous Innervations
Although peripheral nerve anatomy is more or less similar among individuals, in a sizable minority, there are some significant anatomic variations. These are known as anomalous innervations. Several of these…
Anatomy and Neurophysiology
The electromyographer need not have detailed knowledge of all the electrical and chemical events that occur at a molecular level in order to perform an electrodiagnostic (EDX) study. However, every…
Late Responses
Nerve conduction studies are most often used to assess distal nerve segments, with routine stimulation seldom done above the elbow or knee. Few studies can be easily performed to assess…
Basic Overview of Electromyography
After the nerve conduction studies are completed, the electrophysiologic evaluation moves on to the needle electromyography (EMG) examination. Like the nerve conduction studies, each needle EMG study must be individualized…
Repetitive Nerve Stimulation
The use of repetitive nerve stimulation (RNS) dates back to the late 1800s, when Jolly made visual observations of muscle movement that occurred after nerve stimulation. Although his initial studies…
Blink Reflex
Few routine electrophysiologic tests are available to evaluate the cranial nerves and their proximal segments other than visual and brainstem evoked potentials. However, cranial nerves V (trigeminal) and VII (facial),…
Approach to Nerve Conduction Studies and Electromyography
Electrodiagnostic (EDX) studies play a key role in the evaluation of patients with neuromuscular disorders. Among these studies are included nerve conduction studies (NCSs), repetitive nerve stimulation, late responses, blink…
Knee Anatomy and Biomechanics of the Knee
Knee Anatomy Francesc Malagelada Jordi Vega Pau Golanó The knee is the largest joint in the human body and one of the most complex from a functional point of view. It is also…
Extensor Mechanism Injuries of the Knee
Patellar and Quadriceps Tendinopathies and Ruptures The patellofemoral articulation encounters one of the highest joint reaction forces in the body. Competent patellar and quadriceps tendons are essential for proper function,…
Knee Diagnosis and Decision Making
For the experienced practitioner, the history and physical examination remains the most efficient, sensitive, specific, accurate, and cost-effective method of establishing a diagnosis in patients with knee-related complaints. Several investigators…
