Therapeutic education in persons with spinal cord injury: A review of the literature




Abstract


Introduction


Therapeutic education is an integrant part of the physical medicine and rehabilitation care of persons with spinal cord injury. It is often conducted in an empirical manner. The objective of this literature review was to evaluate the state of the art regarding the evaluations and therapeutic education programs for persons with spinal cord injury.


Material and method


Systematic review of the literature with Medline and Cochrane Library databases from 1966 to 2009.


Results


The main areas of interest, for the evaluations found in the literature, focused on clinical variables, patients’ knowledge, health behaviors, functional independence and quality of life but also psychological dimensions such as health locus of control, representations, abilities to resolve problems and self-perceived efficacy. Ten clinical studies were retained for analysis. These clinical studies were built around various health and educational models. An impact was highlighted on clinical variables (pressure ulcer, urinary tract infection), knowledge, quality of life and psychological criteria (depression, self-perceived efficacy, coping and problem solving strategies).


Discussion and conclusion


The global level of evidence on the effects of therapeutic education in persons with spinal cord injury is low because of the number of studies and their low statistical power and requires additional studies. However, the analysis of the literature allows for discussing the organization of therapeutic education in clinical practice.


Résumé


Introduction


L’éducation thérapeutique fait partie intégrante de la prise en charge des personnes lésées médullaires en médecine physique et de réadaptation. Elle est souvent réalisée de manière empirique. L’objectif de cette revue de la littérature est de faire l’état de l’art concernant les évaluations et les programmes d’éducation thérapeutique chez la personne lésée médullaire.


Matériel et méthode


Revue systématique de la littérature avec interrogation des bases de données Medline et Cochrane Library de 1966 à 2009.


Résultats


Les axes d’évaluation proposés dans la littérature abordent les variables cliniques, les connaissances des patients, les comportements de santé, l’indépendance fonctionnelle et la qualité de vie mais également des dimensions psychologiques comme le locus de contrôle de la santé, les représentations, les capacités de résolution de problème ou le sentiment d’efficacité perçue. Dix essais cliniques ont été retenus. Ces essais sont construits selon différents modèles de santé et éducatifs. Un impact a été mis en évidence sur les variables cliniques (escarre, infection urinaire), la connaissance, la qualité de vie, et les critères psychologiques (dépression, efficacité perçue, stratégies de coping et de résolution de problème).


Discussion et conclusion


Le niveau de preuve global des effets de l’éducation thérapeutique chez la personne lésée médullaire est faible compte tenu du nombre d’étude et de leur faible puissance, et nécessite des études complémentaires. L’analyse de la littérature permet cependant de discuter de l’organisation de l’activité éducative en pratique clinique.



English version



Introduction


The development of therapeutic patient education (TPE) proposed by the French Health Agency (HAS) is part of a policy to improve the quality of life of patients with chronic pathologies and controlling their related healthcare costs. Their annual increase is estimated at 6.7%. Regarding ALD n o 20 (long-term disability), the cost for the French health insurance has been evaluated at 678 million Euros in 2008, with 5% of persons with spinal cord injury (SCI) consuming almost 32% of these resources . These healthcare costs will predictably increase in the next few years due to population aging and higher costs correlated to advanced medical techniques.


For several years, the population of persons with SCI has been marked by two characteristics: on the one hand a change in the etiological profile directly linked to the decrease in traffic accidents and an increase in medical pathologies, and on the other hand an increased life expectancy associated to more aging-related complications . The last numbers available reported an incidence of 1000 new cases per year in France, and this incidence is probably decreasing . The prevalence is unknown, but it can indirectly be estimated by the number of ALD20 long-term disabilities reported amounting to 32 428 in 2008, i.e. 57 for 100 000, meaning a 0.7% increase compared to 2007 .


The clinical progression for patients with SCI can be summed up as such: generally, persons with traumatic SCI go through an acute phase where the objective of the medical team is to stabilize the patient’s main vital functions and prevent major complications correlated to immobility. Once their clinical status has been stabilized, patients are transferred into a specialized physical medicine and rehabilitation (PM&R) unit proposing a therapeutic project focused on functional rehabilitation and education. During this time period, patients discover a new life and must learn to cope with their new physiology. They learn to identify and manage the various complications linked to SCI. The great majority of patients go home after their PM&R stay , where they have access to specialized therapeutic follow-up, especially neuro-urological, more and more standardized over the years yet patients progressively abandon this follow-up over time . The rehospitalizations rate is quite high, between 15 and 25% per year ; essentially linked to neuro-urological, skin and respiratory complications . The literature has reported several studies on therapeutic education these past years and it is sometimes difficult to comprehend the concepts related to this term. We uncovered some noticeable discrepancies between the different authors depending in part on the health model and educational model used . To simplify, we can differentiate two health models: the biomedical model (being in good health means not being sick) and the global model (being in good health means physical and psychological well-being), but also three educational models according to the set objectives: observational (the physician makes the decision), shared responsibility (the patient and physician set some goals together) and self-determination (the patient sets his or her own goals).


PM&R has been promoting an educational approach for persons with SCI but in an empirical manner. This specificity was recognized in 2007 by the HAS . Today the issue focuses on how to structure the educational activity within our PM&R specialty and how to adapt it to global educational concepts within an ever-changing economical health model.


The SOFMER put together a think tank to discuss this issue , in partnership with Association francophone et internationale des groupes d’animation de la Paraplégie (AFIGAP, French and International Association for thinking groups on paraplegia) and the Prévention, Education, Recherche, Soins, Escarres Association (PERSE, Prevention, Education, Research, Care, Pressure ulcers). The first objective of this think tank was to evaluate TPE in persons with SCI through a review of the literature.



Method


A review of the literature was done by accessing Medline and Cochrane Library databases from 1996 to 2009. The references of the selected articles were then analyzed and additional articles corresponding to the inclusion criteria, but not part of the initial search, were added. The keywords used were “spinal cord injury/disease”, “self care/therapeutic education”, “educational needs”, “patients’ beliefs”.


The articles mentioning evaluation tools or scales used in clinical or fundamental studies on TPE as well as clinical studies in the French and English language were selected, but also literature reviews and good practice recommendations were also used for the analysis.


The results were divided into three parts: educational results, evaluation of the educational process and clinical studies conducted. The underlying theoretical concepts, evaluated by specific scales on the educational process, were also reported. The clinical studies were defined according to the patient’s health model or educational model they were referring to.



Educational results and therapeutic contract


They way to approach PTE will depend on corresponding health and educational models. In the biomedical model, intuitively invested by medical professionals, educational results often correspond to the measurement of patients’ compliance, in other terms the difference between what the physician prescribes and what is done by the patient. In the global model, the objective is to accompany persons with chronic pathologies towards autonomous self-care (empowerment), i.e. able to take their own decisions, including which therapeutic self-care competencies they would like to develop. The educational report can be seen as confronting healthcare professionals’ expectations with patients’ expectations whereas a therapeutic contract will be what healthcare professional and patients have decided together (objective of share responsibility).



Educational needs seen by healthcare professionals: biomedical challenges


For healthcare professionals the first objectives regarding therapeutic education can be summed up into four categories: reduce mortality, reduce morbidity following SCI, reduce the rate of subsequent hospital stays post SCI and contribute to quality of life improvement.


The rate of mortality in this SCI population is higher than in the general population as evaluated by the standardized mortality ratio (SMR) at 1.47 (95% CI 1.04–2.03) . The leading death causes are cancers, cardiovascular pathologies and infectious pathologies. After multivariate analysis, the main mortality risk factors (regardless of the cause) are age (RR = 1.08, 95% CI 1.05–1.12), active smoking (RR = 3.53, 95% CI 1.27–9.79), existence of cardiac pathology (RR = 3.64, 95% CI 1.6–8.02) or diabetes (RR = 2.65, 95% CI 1.21–5.83).


SCI-correlated morbidity affects almost all organs. Pressure ulcers are the most common complications with a prevalence going from 15% the first year, to almost 30% at 20 years post-SCI. Urinary tract complications come in second. The prevalence of renal insufficiency is around 10% at 5 years post-SCI and increases to 26% at 20 years post-SCI. The prevalence of gallstones or kidney stones goes from 2.3% at 10 years to 9.4% at 20 years post-SCI . Thromboembolitic complications (deep venous thrombosis, pulmonary embolism) tend to decrease along the years: from 2.6% the first year to less than 0.5% at 20 years post-SCI. Infectious complications are also quite common, largely dominated by urinary tract infections, regardless of the level of injury and by lung infections for patients with quadriplegia .


Metabolic and cardiovascular functions are also affected . In studies on USA cohorts, the prevalence of ischemic heart disease is reported at around 35%, and prevalence of diabetes estimated at 15% . Furthermore, almost 66% of persons with SCI are either overweight or obese . The rehospitalizations rate after SCI is also a good indicator of medical needs: it is in the order of 30% during the first year after going home, and then levels off between 15 and 25% per follow-up year . The main causes of rehospitalization are, in decreasing order of frequency, urogenital, skin (pressure ulcers), respiratory and musculoskeletal (fracture or other) disorders. Based on their knowledge of SCI complications healthcare professionals will establish a list of objectives for the competencies to be acquired.



Researching information and educational needs expressed by patients


The needs expressed by SCI patients focus first on information. It is essential that the themes covered during TPE sessions meet patients’ expectations, regarding finding answers to their questions, if we want to improve TPE results.


Several studies have reported the way chronic SCI patients were seeking medical information. In 2002, a transversal study by Edwards et al. conducted in 14 persons with SCI listed internet website has the most preferred, accessible source of information (65% of the sample), followed by healthcare professionals (35% of the sample). Another transversal study done by Burkell et al. on 207 persons with SCI reported a need for information for 88% of these persons and in 88% of cases this information came from multiple sources. The first ones were human sources, represented by the specialist physician (80%), then family physician (75%), nurses, physiotherapists and other non-physicians (58%) as well as other patients (57%). Internet websites only represented 35% of the information sources. Cox et al. asked 54 persons with SCI about the greatest perceived barrier to their needs being met. The main barriers listed were lack of limited local specialist knowledge about SCI (81% of participants), lack of finances (56%) and complexity of the actions required (31%). Studies focusing on the needs expressed by chronic SCI patients have differentiated three types of needs: the need for help from a specialized team, need for information and need for education ( Table 1 ). These three types of needs bring up very distinct themes:




  • needs for help from a specialized team , they first include medical and social issues (e.g. human, material or financial disability aids, professional reinsertion), as well as medical services (therapeutic education, positioning, effort retraining program);



  • needs for information mostly for clinical trials conducted on spinal cord and aging for persons with SCI, then medical services (therapeutic education, effort retraining program);



  • the themes related to patient-expressed educational needs are mostly medical (muscle function, bladder/bowel disorders, pain, transit disorder and pressure ulcers) as well as physical exercise. Weaning from smoking, alcohol or drugs amount to less than 15% of the expressed educational needs.



Table 1

Main results from studies evaluating educational, information or intervention needs expressed by persons with SCI.








































































































































































































Cox et al.
n = 54
Gontkovsky et al.
n = 103
Collins et al.
n = 853
Hart et al.
n = 590
Type of need Intervention Information Education Education
Medical problems secondary to the SCI
Muscle function (evaluation–strengthening) 60 51.4
Bladder-bowel disorders 33 54 51.1
Aging following SCI 73 22
Pain 41 52 42.7
Spasticity 38.1
Transit disorders 39 47 35.3
Pressure ulcer 17 29 43 35
Fatigue 34.8
Medication management 23 34.1
Spasms 28 23.1
Autonomic dysreflexia 35 20 23
General medical problems
Sexuality 24 29 20 39.8
Stress-anxiety management 29 38.1
Nutrition 38 36
Obesity 10 34.8
Weaning from smoking 14.9
Weaning from drugs or alcohol 5 11.1
Existing medical programs
Clinical studies on SCI 72
Physical exercise program 46 54 33 53.1
Positioning–seating 26
Educational program 48 63
Medically assisted procreation 11 29 3 23.8
Social-medical problems
Financial aids 30 66 12
Acquiring material 28 44
Job–employment 44 5
Home services 39 16
Transport 44
Leisure activities 33

Results are expressed in % of positive answers on the given sample


Hart et al. have tried to define the profiles of patients according to the themes chosen: for example, the need for information on pressure ulcer increased alongside the age of the lesion, age and history of pressure ulcers; whereas sexuality care management was mostly relevant for young men. No study has been conducted on this topic since then. Furthermore, no study has evaluated the educational needs expressed by persons in the acute SCI phase.



Therapeutic contract


In the literature, we did not unveil any tool for co-defining educative objectives between patients with SCI and healthcare professionals. However, we did find in specific healthcare fields, some participative care approaches. For example, the Canadian Occupational Performance Measure (COPM) has been developed by occupational therapists as a decision-helping tool for defining therapeutic objectives with the patient . It consists in a semi-structured interview asking patients to define their level of difficulties on themes related to functional independence and social insertion (e.g., leisure, managing daily activities). Five themes are defined by the patients who then evaluate, on a visual analog scale, their level of performance and satisfaction for each theme. The psychometric properties of this tool were evaluated: the test–retest reproducibility was excellent . The construct validity vs. the FIM was satisfactory . As an indication, on a cohort of 200 persons with SCI, the main four themes expressed by these persons were functional mobility for 19% (wheelchair use, transfer), getting dressed (13%), washing up (11%) and eating (8%) .



Evaluation of the educational process


This chapter sums up the core elements evaluated in clinical or fundamental research studies exploring the therapeutic education of persons with SCI. The scales listed are measuring tools developed for a specific use ( Table 2 ). Evaluating educational results is not the primary goal of these scales, since it requires a clinical and individualized approach.



Table 2

Description of the various evaluation scales used in persons with SCI.















































































































Axis/Scale Type of scale Description Validation
Knowledge
Needs Assessment Checklist (NAC) Self assessment questionnaire
Validated in English
SCI specific
185 items in 9 dimensions
Reproducibility: Pearson r between 0.694 and 0.904 according to the dimensions
Validity: satisfactory internal consistency (mean Cronbach α = 0.84)
Skin Management Needs Assessment Checklist (SMnac) Self assessment questionnaire
Validated in English and French
SCI specific
12 items (English version)
18 items (French version)
Reproducibility: excellent (ICC = 0.90)
Validity: good internal consistency (Cronbach α = 0.85)
Responsiveness to change: good (during the initial stay)
Perceptions
Illness Perception Scale Self assessment questionnaire
Validated in English
Non-SCI specific
118 items in 9 dimensions
Reproducibility: unknown
Validity: satisfactory factor analysis
Responsiveness to change: unknown
Brief Illness Perception Questionnaire Self assessment questionnaire
Validated in English
Non-SCI specific
9 items
Reproducibility: good (Pearson r between 0.55 and 0.75)
Construct validity: very satisfactory
Responsiveness to change: unknown
Problem solving
Social Problem Solving Inventory Revised Self assessment questionnaire
Validated in English
Fees to pay
Non specific
70 items, 5 dimensions
Reproducibility: unknown
Validity: unknown
Responsiveness to change: unknown
Health locus of control
Multidimensional Health Locus of Control Scale Form C Self assessment questionnaire
Validated in English
18 items
4 dimensions
Reproducibility: according to the dimensions: mediocre to satisfactory
Validity: satisfactory factor analysis
Responsiveness to change: unknown
Perceived self-efficacy
General Perceived Self Efficacy Scale Self assessment questionnaire
Validated in several languages including in French
Non-Specific
10 items
Reproducibility: unknown
Validity: good int. consistency (Cronbach between 0.71 and 0.91)
Responsiveness to change: unknown
Moorong self efficacy scale Self assessment questionnaire
Validated in English
SCI specific
16 items
Reproducibility: unknown
Validity: satisfactory construct validity
Responsiveness to change: unknown
Health behaviors
Health Behaviors Checklist Self assessment questionnaire
Validated in English
Non SCI specific
40 items, 4 dimensions (health behavior, preventing risky behaviors, traffic risk taking, substance risk taking)
Reproducibility: unknown
Validity: satisfactory construct validity, good internal consistency
Responsiveness to change: unknown
Spinal Cord Injury Lifestyle Scale Self assessment questionnaire
Validated in English
SCI specific
25 items evaluating preventive behaviors
Reproducibility: unknown
Validity: good internal consistency (Cronbach = 0.81)
Responsiveness to change: unknown
Coping
Spinal Cord Lesion Related coping Scale Self assessment questionnaire
Validated in English
SCI specific
12 items, 3 dimensions (acceptance, fighting spirit and social reliance)
Reproducibility: acceptable (kappa between 0.52 and 0.79)
Validity: moderate to good internal consistency (Cronbach = 0.44 to 0.64)
Responsiveness to change: unknown

SCI : person with spinal cord injury.



Knowledge



Definition


Improving patients’ knowledge is one of the classic objectives of this educational approach. The hypothesis is that patients improving their knowledge on their disease and therapeutic care will increase their self-care and therapeutic compliance.



Example of scales


The Need Assessment Checklist (NAC) is a self-assessment questionnaire with 185 items evaluating patients’ knowledge and self-care capacities in nine specific dimensions related to chronic rehabilitation care of persons with SCI: activity of daily life (ADL), bladder/bowel management, transit management, mobility, wheelchair and equipment, life in the community, coordination of care after hospital discharge, psychology. Reproducibility, evaluated in 43 persons, is good for all dimensions (Pearson r between 0.694 and 0.904). Validity evaluated by the measure of internal consistency was satisfactory for each dimension (mean Cronbach α = 0.84). Construct validity was done with the corresponding subscores of the Spinal Cord Independence Measure (SCIM) and the Hamilton Anxiety Depression scale (HAD), reporting satisfactory to good correlations (Pearson r between 0.460 and 0.850). The Skin Management Needs Assessment Checklist (SMnac) corresponds to the skin chapter of the NAC. The validation in English of the SMnac was conducted on 317 patients , and highlighted a good internal consistency (Cronbach: 0.85), as well as a good sensitivity to change. The test–retest reproducibility of the SMnac was reported at 0.90 .



Perceptions and beliefs



Definition


The concept of perception stemmed from cognitive sciences . Meyer et al. proposed in the eighties the self-regulation model , derived from the Health Belief Model described by Rosenstock in 1966 : patients build up a cognitive and emotional perception of their illness based on the information available to them to give it some sense and better manage it. Five cognitive dimensions are generally admitted: identity (name of the illness and self-perceived severity of its symptoms), duration (acute or chronic illness), consequences (self-perceived physical, social or economic consequences), cause (personal ideas about the cause of the illness) and control (opinion of the patient on his or her capacity to act or control the illness). The sixth dimension is an emotional one (patient’s feelings towards the illness).



Examples of scales


Two categories of scales are available: perception scales specific to persons with SCI, and non-specific scales that have already been used in the literature in this SCI population.



Non-specific scales


The Illness Perception Questionnaire Revised (IPQ-R) is a self-assessment questionnaire evaluating the perceptions of the illness. It is made of 118 items divided into eight different dimensions: timeline acute/chronic, timeline cyclical, consequences, personal control, treatment control, illness consistency, emotional representation and causal scales. These dimensions were validated in the original factor analysis, but recently undermined by an exploratory factor analysis , which validated some dimensions of the questionnaires (time scales), and raised some questions on the uniformity of other dimensions such as the causal perception scale. The questionnaire has been validated in the English language.


The Brief Illness Perception Questionnaire is a self-assessment questionnaire with nine items (eight set items and one open item) evaluating the same dimensions as the IPQ-R. The test-retest reproducibility conducted on a cohort of 132 patients was good for all items (r between 0.55 and 0.75). Construct validity was evaluated, essentially with convergence hypotheses, on a cohort of 550 patients (132 patients with renal insufficiency, 119 patients with diabetes and 309 patients with asthma) with a common convergence hypothesis using the subscales of the IPQ-R. Other hypotheses were conducted and validated in the various patients’ subgroups. The responsiveness to change is unknown. The questionnaire was validated in the English Language.



Specific scales


Some qualitative studies have focused on perception of secondary complications and their prevention in persons with SCI.


King et al. explored the perception of pressure ulcer and its prevention in 22 persons with SCI . Four types of perception were described:




  • taking vigilant care: pressure ulcer is a terrifying illness to avoid at all costs. Prevention requires non-stop vigilance;



  • taking charge of care: pressure ulcer is an illness to be avoided if one wants to stay healthy with a good quality of life. Prevention is based on good material, trained healthcare professionals and actions must be implemented as part of a daily routine;



  • maintaining health: pressure ulcer is a secondary objective; the main goal is to be healthy. The relevance of prevention is understood but not necessarily implemented;



  • passing up care: pressure ulcer is not a problem. Prevention is an obstacle to leading a normal life and a restriction to freedom.




Problem solving



Definition


Problem solving is a notion largely used in the areas of cognitive-behavioral therapies. D’Zurilla and Nezu described this theory as an approach to look for the best solution possible to a given problem. The problem solving strategies implemented by individuals are conditioned by their perceptions of the problem, previous experiences as well as their knowledge.



Evaluation scale


Social Problem Solving Inventory-Revised (SPSI-R) is a 70-item self-assessment questionnaire evaluating five dimensions: positive problem orientation, negative problem orientation, rational problem solving, impulsivity/carelessness style and avoidance style. There is a fee to use this questionnaire, giving also access to the validity studies of the original versions. It takes 15 to 20 minutes to take the test. There is no French version of this questionnaire. This scale has been used by Elliott et al. in a 3-year follow-up study on a cohort of 188 persons with SCI, studying the impact of problem solving strategies on the onset of pressure ulcers. After a multivariate analysis, they showed that constructive problem solving strategies (positive problem orientation, rational problem solving) were protective and that negative strategies (negative problem orientation, avoidance, impulsivity/carelessness style) promoted the onset of pressure ulcers.



Health locus of control



Definition


In psychology, locus of control is defined by a person’s perceived control over his or her own behavior. Health locus of control (HLC) is the way an individual perceives the cause of his or her illness. For example, people with an external locus of control attribute an external cause to their illness (e.g., chance, faith, third person) whereas people with an internal locus of control feel responsible for their illness.



Scales


Multidimensional Health Locus of Control scale Form C (Form C MHLC Scale) is an 18-item scale evaluating HLC in four dimensions: internal, chance, physicians and others. The test-retest reproducibility of the various dimensions varies from 0.80 for the internal dimension to 0.40 for the “other” dimension. A factor analysis in 290 patients with diabetes, pain or suffering from arthritis validated the four dimensions. It is the only scale to have been used in persons with SCI . To our knowledge, there is only an English version. The French version actually used does not seem to have been validated.



Perceived self efficacy



Definition


Perceived self-efficacy (PSE) has stemmed from cognitive social theories and especially the works of Bandura , and has numerous applications in psychology, health, sports or work areas. PSE corresponds to the beliefs of an individual towards his or her capacities to perform a task or an ensemble of tasks. The feeling of perceived self-efficacy is correlated to measured performance and behavioral choice . In the area of therapeutic education, PSE can be used to define educational objectives : dimensions with the lowest PSE correspond a priori to dimensions where patients have the less adapted health behaviors.



Evaluation scales


General Perceived Self efficacy Scale is a scale initially created in the German language and secondarily translated and published by the authors into different languages including French . The scale initially included 20 items but was reduced to 10 items after factor analysis. The internal consistency was satisfactory ( α cronbach between 0.71 and 0.91). Moorong Self Efficacy Scale (MSES) was specifically developed to evaluate the perceived self-efficacy in persons with SCI . The scale includes 16 items. Construct validity and a validating factor analysis were conducted . There is no French version.



Health behaviors



Definition


Behavioral Medicine is the interdisciplinary field concerned with the development and integration of behavioral, psychosocial, and biomedical science knowledge and techniques relevant to the understanding of health and illness, and the application of this knowledge and these techniques to prevention, diagnosis, treatment and rehabilitation . Health behaviors are usually classified into risky behavior and protective behavior (or immunogen).



Evaluation scales


Two categories of scales are differentiated: health behaviors scales specific to persons with SCI and health behaviors scales that are non-specific, but have already been used in the literature for persons with SCI.



Non-specific scales


The Health Behaviors Checklist (HBC) is a scale made of 40 items categorized in four dimensions: wellness behaviors, accident control behaviors, traffic risk taking, risk taking substance. Each item is scored using a Lickert scale from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). Reproducibility and responsiveness to change are unknown. The internal consistency is good . Construct validity has been evaluated , with convergence hypotheses using personality scales.



Specific scale


The Spinal Cord Injury Lifestyle Scale (SCILS) is a self-assessment questionnaire evaluating preventive health behaviors on 25 items . Reproducibility and responsiveness to change are unknown. Internal consistency is good (Cronbach α = 0.81) and construct validity has been explored by convergence hypothesis with advice from a physician. A Dutch adaptation is available with 22 items, with an equivalent internal consistency . The NAC previously described also evaluates health behaviors in the various dimensions of SCI therapeutic care.



Coping strategies



Definition


Coping refers to the psychological process implemented by people to deal with stress or challenges. Folkman and Lazarus reported in a behavioral and cognitive approach several coping strategies . The three main strategies described were seeking information, seeking social support and action inhibition.



Scale examples


The Spinal Cord Lesion Related Coping Scale is a scale specifically designed to explore coping after SCI . It is made of 12 items, divided into three dimensions: acceptance, fighting spirit and social reliance. Internal consistency goes from moderate to good according to the dimensions (Cronbach α between 0.44 and 0.64). The reproducibility is good (kappa between 0.52 and 0.79). Only the English version has been validated.



Non-specific scales


The Way of Coping Questionnaire (WCQ) has also been used in persons with SCI and has the advantage of having been validated in the French language.



Other dimensions evaluated


Functional independence, quality of life or psychological variables (e.g., anxiety, depression) are also found in the studies on TPE following SCI. The main scales used were described in a previous publication .



Clinical studies conducted



Characteristics of these clinical studies


The analysis of the literature kept 10 clinical studies focusing on TPE following SCI (three free studies, four open, controlled and randomized studies and three open controlled studies) the oldest one was published in 2001 ( Table 3 ). Most of these clinical studies had a weak statistical power. Only three of these studies had a cohort of more than 50 patients .



Table 3

Clinical trials evaluating therapeutic éducation in persons with spinal cord injury.



















































































































































































































Type of study
Health model
Educational mode
Population Protocol Studied criteria Results
Phillips et al. Open RCT 111 persons with SCI
Mean age 35 years
G1 ( n = 36)
Individual education (1/week, 5 weeks) in telemedicine.
Themes = pressure ulcer, nutrition, bladder-bowel and transit, psychosocial, technical aid)
G2 ( n = 36)
Individual education (1/week, 5 weeks) by phone
Same themes
G3 ( n = 39) control.
Depression (Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression scale) NS
Biomedical Acute phase QoL (Quality of Well Being Scale) S (G1 + 2 versus G3)
Compliance Follow-up during the initial stay and one year post-discharge
Garber et al. Open RCT 41 persons with SCI
age = 53
G1 ( n = 20)
Thematic education (pressure ulcer): 4 × 1 h individual
Information booklet
Monthly phone motivational follow-up
G2 ( n = 20) = control
Pressure ulcer Knowledge Test (non validated) NS
Biomedical quadri = 39%
Acute phase
Compliance Follow-up admission-discharge
Hagglund et al. Open controlled non randomized trial 60 persons with SCI
age = 39
G1 ( n = 37)
6-hour educational workshop (complications following SCI, bower-bladder management). Video support
G2 ( n = 23)
Rate of urinary infection in the past 6 months S ( p = 0.02)
Biomedical Chronic phase
Shared responsibility
Follow-up M0-M6
May et al. Free study 23 persons with SCI
Quadri = 30%
– Group workshops, twice a week for 8 weeks, 12 themes (function of the spinal cord, pressure ulcer, bladder-bowel, transit, autonomic system, blood circulation, sexuality, technical aids, wheelchair, home adaptation, etc.) Knowledge questionnaire (29 items, non validated) S
Biomedical Acute phase Problem solving (Life Situation Scenario) NS
Compliance
Follow-up M0-M6 perceived importance of the theme no changes
Bock 2005,2009 Shake it up project Non randomized control Study = 35 persons with SCI
age = 44.2
G1 ( n = 17)
Group workshop over 10 days (2×/months, 5 months). Out of hospital context. In the morning = seminar on independence and health, themes defined by the patients, educational tools: reading, discussion, role playing
Educational objectives set individually during and after the workshops
G2 ( n = 18) = control
General perceived self efficacy scale FU at M6 &M12 ( p = 0.007)
Global model Chronic phase
Shared responsibility
Follow-up M0-M6-M12
Norrbrink et al. Open Non randomized control Study n = 23 persons with SCI
Age = 53 years
G1 ( n = 12)
Group workshops (20 sessions over a 10-week period), theme neurologic pain
Pain intensity (Borg CR10 scale)
Sleep (Akerstedt)
NS
NS
Global model Chronic phase Educational sessions (e.g., physiology, pharmacology) QoL (Notthingham Health Profile) NS
Shared responsibility Follow-up M0-M3-M6-M12 Behavioral therapy (coping, pain management strategy) – relaxation, stretching
G2 ( n = 11) = control
HAD
Coping
S on depression
S
Chen et al. Free study n = 16 persons with SCI
BMI > 25
quadri 25%
Collective workshops over a 12-week period (1/wk)
Nutrition: knowledge, setting realistic weight goals, exercise goals to change behaviors
Body mass
Lipid profile
Nutritional study
S ( p = 0.0004)
NS
Global model Chronic phase Psychological: stress management, relaxation, problem solving, behavioral strategy
Physical exercise (30 min per week)
Quantitative (kcal/D)
Qualitative
NS
Therapeutic compliance Follow-up W0-W12-W24 Knowledge, nutrition
QoL (Psychological Well Being Schedule)
S ( p = 0.001 on saturated fats for ex)
S ( p = 0.01)
NS
Liusuwan et al.
BENEFit
Free study n = 20 persons with SCI
Obese adolescents
Collective workshops over a 1 ± week period (2/week)
Theme: education to physical exercise and nutrition
Body mass
Muscle strength
NS
S ( p = 0.01)
Biomedical model Chronic phase Tools: interactive reading then implementation
Suggesting, in parallel, a program of physical exercise at home
Aerobic capacity
Lipid profile
S ( p = 0.002)
NS
Shared responsibility Follow-up W0 and W16 “Family” workshops: stress management, problem solving,
Rintala et al. Open randomized control study n = 41 persons with SCI G1 ( n = 20)
Individual workshop (pressure ulcer) lasting 4 h
Rate of recurrent PU at 2 years (33%/60%/90% p = 0.007)
Biomedical model Secondary phase (Post pressure ulcer surgery) information booklet
Monthly motivational phone follow-up
G2 ( n = 11)
Delay between the recurrent episodes (19.6/10.1/10.3 p = 0.002)
Compliance objective quadri = 39%
2-year follow-up
Simple monthly phone follow-up
G3 ( n = 10)
Mail follow-up every 3 months
Elliott and Hurst Open randomized control study 61 family caregivers and 61 persons with SCI G1 ( n = 32 family caregivers)
Education + training in problem solving. One session a month by videoconference during one year.
Social Problem Solving Inventory R S ( p < 0,05)
Global mode G2 ( n = 29 family caregivers) Depression (Inventory to diagnose depression) S ( p < 0,05)
Self-determination objective Follow-up M0-M6-M12 Education alone QoL (SF36)
Life satisfaction scale
NS


The studied population was made of persons with SCI in their initial rehabilitation phase for three studies , in secondary rehabilitation for one study and in the chronic phase for five studies. One study proposed a therapeutic education program aimed at family caregivers helping persons with SCI .


The health model was a biomedical one for six studies , and a global one for four studies . The educational approaches developed were based on therapeutic compliance for five studies , shared responsibility for three studies and self-determination for two studies . Studies based on a health biomedical model primarily used an approach centered on therapeutic compliance. The targeted themes were essentially secondary complication of SCI: functions of the spinal cord , pain , pressure ulcer , bladder-bowel management , transit , sexuality but also nutrition or physical activity . Some workshops focused on psychosocial themes (social insertion, stress management disability benefits) . The two studies who had a therapeutic approach based on self-determination did not detail the themes determined by patients during the workshops.



Results analysis according to the health or educational model


Comparative studies that used a global health model and an educational approach based on self-determination or shared responsibility reported a significant impact on self-perceived efficacy , but also on depression and coping strategies used, especially for neurological pain . The study of Elliott and Hurst , on family caregivers showed a significant impact on the problem-solving capacity and depression of family caregivers but not on their quality of life. No study has evaluated the impact of this approach on secondary complications. Comparative studies that used a biomedical health model and an approach based on therapeutic compliance or shared responsibility have evaluated the impact on secondary complications (decreased recurrence rate and longer delay between two episodes , decreased rate of urinary tract infections ), patients’ knowledge (significant and non-significant differences, non-validated questionnaires). No effect was validated on depression or problem-solving capacity . Phillips et al. did however highlight a significant positive impact on quality of life.



Discussion


The various articles found in the literature allowed for analyzing the therapeutic education in persons with SCI according to three core areas: needs expressed and biomedical challenges, evaluation of the educational process and clinical studies. The educational needs and biomedical challenges cross over on some themes such as bladder-bowel disorders, skin prevention, transit disorders or sexuality. Conversely, there are some themes where no needs were brought up (e.g., risk of fracture, orthopedic or cardiovascular risk) even though these themes are highly relevant in terms of public healthcare. It is interesting to note the differences between the needs for information and the needs for education. The most important information needs were related to clinical trials on the spinal cord and aging following SCI. These themes are also interesting for medical professionals . Knowing how important internet is in the search for information on chronic pathologies , including SCI , it seems relevant to develop in PM&R units some internet information search strategies, but also for scientific societies to write and publish studies referenced on certified websites .


The great psychological, cognitive and behavioral concepts described in the educational process are the key to a better comprehension for healthcare professionals. The scales described were designed with a scientific objective in mind and their role in daily TPE practice–including the educational diagnosis – need to be determined. The educational report is an individual approach between physicians and their patients. It is more focused on the attitude and way to look at the patient-physician relationship than a metrological quantitative evaluation as described in this article. However, this educational report can partly be based on these evaluations to set, with the patient, some educational goals. Clinical studies evaluating the impact of TPE in persons with SCI are quite recent. They were first published 10 years ago. The analysis of the literature brought some responses on TPE’s efficacy in persons with SCI. Answers will probably arrive in a few years with the SCI Rehab Project publications . The goal of this US project is to follow a multicenter cohort of persons with SCI during their functional rehabilitation and this for up to one year following SCI based on clinical (neurological recovery, medical complications, functional independence), sociological (social involvement, returning to work, quality of life) and economic criteria (rehospitalization rate). The tested hypotheses focus on the correlation between the above criteria and initial clinical variable, initial sociodemographics variable and therapeutic interventions during the rehabilitation period, including TPE.


The most appropriate time to implement TPE still needs to be determined. The specificity of SCI requires an approach adapted to the different care phases. During the initial stay, it seems logical to look at implementing biomedical themes (e.g., transit, bladder-bowel, pressure ulcer), with an educational process mirroring the therapeutic care process. The objective at that point would be to accompany the patients in their discovery and understanding of the new physiology following SCI and to initiate them to the medicosocial applications for disability benefits taking into account the psychological processes of accepting this disability. There is still a need to define psychological and clinical indicators that would help determine when appropriate to bring up biomedical and social themes with the patient. During the chronic phase, TPE must be targeted on the problems encountered (recurrent pressure ulcers, recurrent urinary tract infections), with contents adapted to the patient’s degree of expertise and teaching methods adapted to the most common psychopathological profiles observed. In this context, the programs found in the literature have been developed on only one theme over several days, usually in groups, exploiting friendly competition and emulation. General medical themes (diabetes, being overweight, sedentary lifestyle) should also be explored by healthcare professionals in the structuring of TPE programs.


We could then get out of the usual institutional TPE programs aiming to promote health, quality of life and social insertion. It is a facet of TPE commonly seen as part of the classic missions of patients’ associations. The latter could then be encouraged, in this framework, to develop their personal therapeutic program.



Perspectives


Several PM&R centers have implemented educational programs for persons with SCI. It seems essential to design guidelines for good clinical practices in order to accompany these PM&R structures. Scientific societies could also implement partnerships with patients’ associations to provide informative documents, regularly updated online to answer the most frequent patients’ request (fundamental spinal cord research for example). Regarding clinical studies, most evaluation scales listed are not validated in the French language. It seems necessary for evaluating TPE programs in all the different circumstances of SCI, to validate some tools in the French language. The issue of the right time to bring up the main themes of TPE with the patient has not been discussed to date, yet it is vital in implementing a strategy and optimizing the available means. This would probably require further exploratory qualitative studies.



Conclusion


The objective of this literature review was to describe the state of the art regarding the therapeutic education of persons with SCI. Patients’ expectations as well as indicators used have been described. Clinical studies on this topic have a low level of evidence due to their limited number and weak statistical power. Some additional studies are necessary. An analysis of the literature allows for bringing up the organization of therapeutic education in clinical practice.





Version française



Introduction


Le développement de l’éducation thérapeutique du patient (ETP) proposé par la Haute Autorité de santé s’inscrit dans une politique d’amélioration de la qualité de vie des patients atteints de pathologies chroniques et de maîtrise des dépenses de santé liée à celles-ci. Leur augmentation annuelle est estimée à 6,7 %. Concernant l’ALD 20, le coût pour l’assurance maladie est évalué en 2008 à 678 millions d’euros, avec 5 % des lésés médullaires consommant près de 32 % des ressources . L’augmentation de ce coût est prévisible dans les années à venir, compte tenu du vieillissement de la population et de l’augmentation des coûts liés à la technicité de la médecine.


Depuis plusieurs années, la population des lésés médullaires est marquée par deux caractéristiques : d’une part, une modification du profil étiologique, directement liée à la réduction de l’accidentologie routière et l’augmentation des causes médicales, et, d’autre part, une augmentation de l’espérance de vie, qui s’accompagne d’un accroissement de la morbidité liée au vieillissement . Les derniers chiffres connus font état d’une incidence de 1000 nouveaux cas par an, probablement en cours de diminution . La prévalence n’est pas connue, mais peut être indirectement estimée par le nombre d’affection longue durée (ALD 20) à 32 428 en 2008, soit 57 pour 100 000 habitants, avec une augmentation de 0,7 % par rapport à 2007 .


Le parcours clinique après lésion médullaire peut se résumer ainsi : généralement, les personnes présentant une lésion médullaire traumatique passent par une phase aiguë durant laquelle les grandes fonctions vitales sont stabilisées et les principales complications liées à l’immobilité sont prévenues par l’équipe soignante. Une fois l’état clinique stabilisé, le patient est transféré dans une unité de médecine physique et de réadaptation (MPR) spécialisée, qui propose un projet thérapeutique axé sur la rééducation et réadaptation fonctionnelle ainsi que l’éducation. Durant cette période, les patients découvrent une nouvelle vie, et doivent apprendre à composer avec une néophysiologie. Ils apprennent à connaître et à gérer les différentes complications liées à la lésion médullaire. L’immense majorité des patients retourne vivre dans la communauté après ce séjour , avec un suivi spécialisé, notamment neuro-urologique, de plus en plus codifié mais qui est progressivement abandonné par les patients avec le temps . Le taux de rehospitalisation est notable, entre 15 et 25 % par an, essentiellement lié aux complications neuro-urologiques, cutanées, respiratoires .


La littérature a été abondante ces dernières années concernant l’éducation thérapeutique et il est parfois difficile de se faire une idée des concepts liés à ce terme. On note des divergences notables entre les différents auteurs qui dépendent en partie du modèle de santé et du modèle éducatif auxquels ils se réfèrent . De manière caricaturale, nous distinguerons deux modèles de santé : le modèle biomédical (être en bonne santé signifie ne pas être malade) et le modèle global (être en bonne santé signifie un état de bien-être physique et moral), ainsi que trois modèles éducatifs selon les objectifs fixés : observationnel (le médecin décide), la responsabilité partagée (le patient et le médecin fixent ensemble des objectifs) et l’autodétermination (le patient fixe ses propres objectifs).


La MPR s’inscrit depuis longtemps mais de manière empirique dans une démarche éducative auprès des personnes lésées médullaires. Cette particularité a été reconnue en 2007 par la Haute Autorité de santé [45]. L’interrogation actuelle porte sur la structuration de l’activité éducative au sein de notre discipline, de son adaptation aux concepts éducatifs globaux, au sein d’un modèle économique de la Santé en pleine mutation.


La Sofmer a mis en place un groupe de réflexion sur cette question , en partenariat avec l’Association francophone et internationale des groupes d’animation de la paraplégie (Afigap) et l’association Prévention, éducation, recherche, soins, escarres (Perse). Le premier objectif de ce groupe est de réaliser une mise au point sur l’ETP chez le lésé médullaire à travers une revue de la littérature.



Méthode


Une revue de la littérature a été réalisée par interrogation des bases de données Medline et Cochrane Library pour les années 1966 à 2009. La bibliographie des articles sélectionnés a été explorée et des articles supplémentaires correspondant aux critères d’inclusion mais non présents dans la recherche initiale ont été ajoutés. Les mots clés utilisés étaient « spinal cord injury / disease », « self care / therapeutic education », « educational needs », « patients’ beliefs ».


Les articles faisant référence aux outils et échelles d’évaluation utilisés dans les études cliniques ou fondamentales sur l’ETP, ainsi que les essais cliniques en langue française ou anglaise ont été sélectionnés, ainsi que les revues de la littérature et les recommandations pour la pratique ont été utilisés pour l’analyse.


Les résultats ont été abordés en trois parties : le bilan éducatif, l’évaluation du processus éducatif et les essais cliniques réalisés. Les concepts théoriques sous-jacents aux dimensions évaluées par les échelles d’évaluation du processus éducatif ont été précisés. Les essais cliniques ont été caractérisés en fonction du modèle de santé et du modèle d’éducation du patient auxquels ils se référaient.



Le bilan éducatif et contrat thérapeutique


La façon d’aborder l’ETP va dépendre des modèles de santé et éducatif auxquels on se réfère.


Dans l’approche biomédicale, intuitivement investie par le corps médical, le bilan éducatif correspond souvent à la mesure de la compliance du patient, en d’autres termes à la différence entre ce qui est prescrit par le médecin et ce qui est fait par le patient.


Dans l’approche globale, l’objectif est d’accompagner la personne atteinte d’une maladie chronique vers l’autonomie dans sa prise en charge ( empowerment ), c’est-à-dire capable de prendre ses propres décisions, y compris sur les capacités de soins qu’elle souhaite développer. Le bilan éducatif peut se concevoir, comme la rencontre entre ce qu’attendent les soignants et les patients et le contrat thérapeutique sera ce que soignants et patients ont décidé, ensemble (objectif de responsabilité partagée).



Les besoins éducatifs vus par les professionnels : les enjeux biomédicaux


Les premiers objectifs des professionnels de santé vis-à-vis de l’éducation thérapeutique peuvent se résumer en quatre axes : réduire la mortalité après lésion médullaire, ainsi que la morbidité liée à la lésion médullaire, réduire le taux de rehospitalisation après lésion médullaire et contribuer à améliorer la qualité de vie.


Il existe, après lésion médullaire, une surmortalité par rapport à la population générale, évaluée par le ratio de mortalité standardisé (SMR) à 1,47 (95 % CI 1,04–2,03) . Les principales causes de mortalités sont les cancers, les pathologies cardiovasculaires, les pathologies infectieuses. Après analyse multivariée, les principaux facteurs de risque de mortalité (toute cause confondue) sont l’âge (RR = 1,08, 95 % CI 1,05–1,12), le tabagisme actif (RR = 3,53, 95 % CI 1,27–9,79), la présence d’une cardiopathie (RR = 3,64, 95 % CI 1,6–8,02) ou d’un diabète (RR = 2,65, 95 % CI 1,21–5,83).


La morbidité liée à la lésion médullaire affecte la quasi-totalité des organes. Les escarres sont les complications les plus fréquentes avec une prévalence passant de 15 % la première année, à près de 30 % à 20 ans d’ancienneté lésionnelle. Les complications urinaires représentent le second groupe de complications. La prévalence de l’insuffisance rénale est de l’ordre de 10 % à cinq ans d’ancienneté lésionnelle et augmente à 26 % à 20 ans d’ancienneté. La prévalence des calculs rénaux ou vésicaux symptomatiques passe de 2,3 % à dix ans, à 9,4 % à 20 ans . Les complications thromboemboliques (thrombose veineuse profonde, embolie pulmonaire) tendent à décroître avec les années : de 2,6 % lors de la première année, à moins de 0,5 % à 20 ans. Les complications infectieuses sont également très fréquentes, largement dominées par les infections de l’appareil urinaire quel que soit le niveau médullaire, et par les infections pulmonaires chez le tétraplégique .


Les fonctions métaboliques et cardiovasculaires sont également affectées . Dans les études de cohorte américaines, la prévalence des cardiopathies ischémiques est d’environ 35 %, celle du diabète est estimée à 15 % , et près de 66 % des lésés médullaires sont en surpoids ou obèses .


Le taux de rehospitalisation après lésion médullaire est également un indicateur des besoins médicaux : il est de l’ordre de 30 % durant la première année après le retour à domicile, pour ensuite se stabiliser entre 15 et 25 % par année de suivi . Les principales causes de rehospitalisation sont, par fréquence décroissante, les causes génito-urinaires, cutanées (escarres), respiratoires, musculosquelettique (fracture ou autre).


Le professionnel de santé va pouvoir s’appuyer sur la connaissance des complications dans la pathologie médullaire pour élaborer une liste d’objectifs de compétences à acquérir.



Recherche d’information et besoins éducatifs exprimées par les patients


Les besoins exprimés par les patients portent en premier lieu sur l’information. Il est primordial que les thématiques abordées durant les séances d’ETP répondent aux questions que se posent les patients, si on veut améliorer les résultats de l’ETP.


Plusieurs études se sont intéressées à la manière dont les lésés médullaires à la phase chronique recherchaient de l’information médicale. En 2002, une enquête transversale d’Edwards et al. réalisée chez 14 lésés médullaires représentait internet comme la première source d’information (65 % de l’échantillon), suivi du corps médical (35 % de l’échantillon). Une autre étude transversale réalisée par Burkell et al. sur 207 lésés médullaires fait état d’un besoin d’information pour 88 % de l’échantillon, avec des sources multiples dans 88 % des cas. Les premières sources sont humaines, représentées par le spécialiste (80 %), puis le généraliste (75 %), les paramédicaux (58 %) et les autres malades (57 %). Internet ne représente que 35 % des sources d’information. Cox et al. ont interrogé 54 lésés médullaires sur les freins à l’atteinte de leurs besoins au quotidien. Les principaux freins sont le manque de connaissance de leur interlocuteur médical ou paramédical local (81 %), le manque de moyen financier (56 %) et la complexité des démarches à réaliser (31 %).


Les études s’intéressant aux besoins exprimés par les patients à la phase chronique distinguent trois types de besoins : les besoins d’intervention d’une équipe spécialisée, les besoins d’information et les besoins d’éducation ( Tableau 1 ). Ces trois types de besoins concernent des thématiques distinctes :




  • les besoins d’intervention d’une équipe spécialisée concernent en premier lieu les problématiques médicosociales (compensation humaine, matérielle ou financière du handicap, insertion professionnelle…), ainsi que des services médicaux (éducation thérapeutique, positionnement, re-entraînement à l’effort) ;



  • les besoins d’information concernent en très large majorité les essais thérapeutiques sur la moelle épinière et le vieillissement après lésion médullaire, puis les services médicaux (éducation thérapeutique, reentraînement à l’effort) ;



  • les thématiques sur lesquelles un besoin éducatif est exprimé sont majoritairement médicales (fonction musculaire, troubles vésicosphinctériens, douleur, trouble du transit, escarre) ainsi que la pratique d’activité physique. Le sevrage tabagique, de l’alcool ou des drogues représente moins de 15 % des besoins éducatifs exprimés.


Apr 23, 2017 | Posted by in PHYSICAL MEDICINE & REHABILITATION | Comments Off on Therapeutic education in persons with spinal cord injury: A review of the literature

Full access? Get Clinical Tree

Get Clinical Tree app for offline access