In this chapter, we focus on sexual forms of harassment and abuse even though we recognize that different forms of harassment and abuse also occur. Sexual harassment refers to behavior toward an individual or group that involves sexualized verbal, nonverbal, or physical behavior, whether intended or unintended, legal or illegal, which is experienced by the victim as unwanted. Verbal sexual harassment may be unwanted intimate questions relating to body, clothes, or one’s private life, “jokes” with a sexual innuendo, and proposals or demands for sexual services or sexual relationships. These may also be in the form of unwanted telephone calls, text messages or letters with a sexual content. Nonverbal sexual harassment may be for instance: staring, showing pictures of objects with sexual allusions. Physical sexual harassment on the other hand can be unwanted or unnecessary physical contact of a sexual nature, such as “pinching,” pressing against another’s body, or attempting to kiss or caress another person.

Behaviors that are characterized as sexual harassment may also be considered as sexual abuse depending on the context, such as severity, the age of the victim, and the local legal system. Sexual abuse involves any sexual activity where consent is not or cannot be given. This includes sexual contact accomplished by force or the threat of force, regardless of the age of the victim or perpetrator. Any sexual activity between an adult and a child regardless of whether there is deception, or the child understands the sexual nature of the activity, is considered to be sexual abuse. Child sexual abuse can also include noncontact (e.g., exhibitionism, involving a child in sexually explicit conversation, engaging a child in pornographic photography), contact (sexual touching, masturbation), and penetrative (oral, vaginal, anal penetration) acts.

The occurrence of sexual harassment and abuse in sport has been documented by researchers in a number of countries during the past 15 years. Research in the area began with both prevalence studies and qualitative investigations of athletes’ experiences, but there is a marked variety of approaches to the subject, both theoretical and methodological. Prevalence rates suggested by research reports across different countries vary according to definitions and research design, making it difficult to compare data across studies. Nevertheless, indicative figures suggest prevalence rates of between 19% and 92 % for sexual harassment in sport and between 2% and 49% for sexual abuse. Research also indicates that sexual harassment and abuse seem to occur across all sports regardless of athlete gender. Whereas sexual harassment appears, in general, to be perpetrated more frequently by peers, studies also indicate that perpetrators of sexual abuse within sports systems are primarily persons in positions of authority, trust, or guardianship, including coaches and less frequently, officials, support staff, and peers. Recent studies from Africa appear to indicate that even for sexual abuse, the frequency of peer abuse may be much higher than previously reported in other studies.

Most studies to date have taken place in Europe, the United States, Canada, and Australia, and it is only very recently that articles have been published from Africa and Asia. Recent figures from Japan indicate comparable (30%) prevalence rates of reported sexual harassment by female athletes. Also consistent with previous research findings, international level female athletes in the Japan study reported higher rates of sexual harassment in sport.

We have until recently only had anecdotal information about the prevalence and experiences of sexual harassment and abuse among athletes in Africa. One master’s thesis which studied the situation in Tanzania found a prevailing perception among sport leaders that sexual harassment and abuse did occur in sport to such an extent that parents found it problematic to send their daughters to sport training. A more extensive survey in Zimbabwe reported high percentages of reported sexual harassment and abuse, with 84% of the athletes reporting that they had experienced severe sexual harassment and 49% reporting that they had experienced sexual abuse, raising additional concerns about the risk of HIV and AIDS in those communities.

The psychological impact of sexual harassment and abuse varies considerably among individuals depending on the characteristics of the harassment or abuse experience itself (e.g., duration, frequency, invasiveness, violence, relationship of the perpetrator to the victim); characteristics of the victim (e.g., age at onset, other traumatic experiences, history of maltreatment), and the characteristics of social support provided to the victim, with positive social support correlating with significantly better adjustment. In general, and particularly where the harassment and abuse is prolonged and repeated and perpetrated by those in positions of trust, guardianship, or authority, as is often the case in sport contexts, a trauma framework provides an appropriate context for treatment interventions. A detailed discussion of the complex psychological sequelae of sexual harassment and abuse is beyond the scope of this article, and any treatment intervention requires specific psychological or psychiatric expertise. Nevertheless, a summary of commonly observed symptoms is provided below to enable health care providers working with female athletes to be alert to possible indicators of sexual harassment and abuse.