Maslow [72] considered peak experiences to be almost mystical in nature and epitomised them as ‘a “little death” and a rebirth in various senses’ [72]. Panzarella (1980) [73] maintained that peak experiences were more likely to occur in people who are considered to be self-actualised. In a study with veteran skydivers, Lipscombe (1999) [74] found that all participants reported at least eight of Maslow’s [72] 19 peak experience characteristics (Table 1.2). These eight characteristics were total attention, rich perception, awe or reverence of the experience, fusion of dichotomies, fusion of the individual, experience or object unification, ego transcendence and intrinsically perfect experience. Lipscombe [74] argued that as few as three of these original characteristics may be required for a peak experience to occur. These results suggest that veteran skydivers’ peak experiences may not rely on perceptions of risk or thrill but rather result from feelings of ‘acute well-being, peace, calm and stillness, detachment, uniqueness, freedom, floating, flying and weightlessness, ecstasy, being in the present, immersed in the moment, immortality, unity, altered perceptions of time and space, self-validation, and awareness of other’.

Research on extreme sport experiences mirrors many of the concepts identified in flow and peak experience research. For example, Brymer and Schweitzer [57, 58] found that extreme sport athletes described time slowing down and deep, meaningful experiences epitomised by feelings of freedom. Brymer and others [55, 75, 76] also describe how extreme sports change the way individuals experience the natural environment through feelings of connection and integration. Recent flow research further supports the notion that extreme sport participants are intrinsically motivated by flow dimensions and suggests that researchers should reconsider traditional characteristics of ‘flow’ amongst extreme and adventure athletes. Studies indicate that, rather than a singular state of flow, adventure participants may experience a range of flow states with varying felt arousal levels, perceived challenge and skill levels and phases, depending on their attentional focus and goals [77, 78]. Participants in these studies reported experiencing both telic flow (a serious, outcome-oriented state) and paratelic flow (a playful, process-oriented state). Although these flow states were equally enjoyable, they were described as qualitatively distinct experiences. For example, in situations of high challenge, such as those present for extreme sport activities, participants most often described telic flow. In this state, participants sought to lower their arousal levels and enjoyment resulted from goal attainment, rather than sensations of excitement or thrills. In contrast, paratelic flow represents a more traditional model of extreme sport participation wherein heightened challenge and high arousal are experienced as enjoyable and thrilling. In these studies, participants reported telic flow more frequently than paratelic flow, an indication that they were generally motivated by flow dimensions rather than sensation seeking or immediate excitement.

The theories of peak experience and flow appear to encompass much of the extreme sport experience. However, additional factors have emerged that may further expand our understanding of this phenomenon in the future. Extreme sport athletes describe characteristics that do not seem to clearly fit existing constructs. For example, Brymer (2009) [53] reported that participants experience lasting transformations. This longer-term effect contrasts with Maslow’s definition of fleeting peak experiences [74, 79]. Participants also report expectations that flow or peak experiences will accompany extreme sports each time they are repeated. This finding also contrasts with Maslow’s postulate that peak experiences are very rare, or once-in-a-lifetime, occurrences [72]. As such, the extreme sport experience might relate more to human experiences characterised as extraordinary and transcendent experiences.