Signs and symptoms associated with decrements in performance and health that are related to clinical safety markers have been linked to a number of aspects including chronic caloric restrictions [3, 4]. In relation to establishing a solid nutritional foundation, to adequately set the stage for reaching optimal training/performance outcomes one need not look any further than establishing a properly designed dietary plan. While this may seem to be an easy goal to accomplish, the commitment, time, and costs often associated with a quality dietary strategy often make it difficult to attain this option. It is a widely accepted fact that athletes involved with high-intensity training and competition do not ingest the right type and/or amounts of macronutrients to offset their energy expenditure. Confirming this premise, utilizing a self-report measure, researchers recently reported that 405 Division I strength and power athletes’ {male = 191; female = 214} caloric intake did not match the recommended caloric intake requirements compared to their caloric expenditure during their annual peroidized training cycles [5]. Specifically, 86 % of the participants surveyed reported being drastically below the scientifically based recommended macronutrient intake for strength/power athletes [3–5]. In fact over 79 % of the athletes reported being hungry during practice/training sessions and competitive events [5]. Finally, with the noted undernourished macronutrient levels, one could also question these athletes’ micronutrient dietary status, especially when 74 % of these participants reported never ingesting a multivitamin during the academic training year.

While nutritional supplementation is a viable alternative for athletes to consume and meet their dietary needs, it should be noted that this practice is not a healthy option to completely replace a quality nutrient-dense diet. This is exactly why it is referred to as nutritional supplementation, to complement/supplement a properly designed nutrient-dense diet. In this section, nutritional necessities surrounding an “eat to compete” philosophy are addressed in relation to strategies to promote recovery of athletic and exercise populations.

The most critical aspect of establishing a properly implemented dietary strategy to accomplish optimal performance outcomes is to insure that exercise participants ingest quality caloric needs to balance specific energy expenditure [3, 4]. When considering this nutritional approach, it is always important to include and calculate individual differences regarding select exercise training intensities. While RDA guidelines have been established regarding daily dietary consumption for general populations, these suggested initiatives really do not apply to athletic or exercise populations involved with intense training protocols because of greater caloric requirements. For example, daily caloric intake needs for untrained individuals are based on the number of kilocalories per kilogram of body weight per day which usually averages between 1,900 and 3,000 kcal daily [6–8]. Without question, when adding various factors of exercise into the equation, the frequency, duration, and intensity demands of the training protocol require increased nutritional intake to maintain an effective energy balance. Individuals involved in low-intensity exercise lasting 30–40 min a day that is performed three times per week typically require 1,800–2,400 kilocalories per day due to minimal physical exertion and energy expenditure [4, 7, 8]. Athletes undertaking moderate exercise protocols defined as 5–6 times a week for 2–3 h a day or intense training 5–6 days a week 3–6 h a day obviously require greater dietary needs (2,500–8,000 kcal/day depending on body weight) compared to individuals involved in light exercise protocols [4, 8, 9]. When accurately evaluating the amount of caloric values needed for individuals involved in the previously mentioned levels of exercise training, it becomes increasingly evident that athletes have a difficult time maintaining ingestion of enough calories by simply consuming a well-balanced diet. Due to the enormous energy expenditure for high volume intensity training the combination of nutritional supplementation to a quality nutritional dietary profile makes it much more feasible for athletes to consume enough energy to replace caloric needs. The proper replacement of caloric needs based on energy expenditure not only helps control a person’s health status but heightens the recovery process needed for adaption to the exercise session and future optimal training/performance bouts. While a balanced energy status is vital for all athletes in formalized training, this aspect becomes even more imperative for larger athletes who must consume huge amounts of quality calories to offset the energy expenditures acquired from high volume and intensity training. Obviously the ramifications of inappropriate dietary strategies can not only lead to tremendous weight loss but make the athlete more susceptible to the various signs and symptoms of physiological and psychological decline. Further, there is scientific evidence that the athlete who undertakes intense training has a greater preponderance to display suppressed appetites which increases the possibility of health risk factors and ultimately promotes performance decrements [10]. A great strategic plan is to develop a multidisciplinary team approach that combines athletic coaches, athletic trainers, sports nutritionists, strength and conditioning coaches, parents, and physicians to closely monitor and evaluate the athlete’s nutrient-dense dietary status in an effort to maintain body weight and promote restoration, thereby promoting optimal performance outcomes.

While caloric ingestion concerns of larger athletes were previously mentioned, there are additional athletic groups that require close monitoring in relation to meeting caloric energy demands. Specifically, female athletes such as gymnasts, figure skaters, and distance runners can be highly susceptible to eating disorders and therefore place themselves in jeopardy of not meeting specific energy caloric needs. This can also hold true for athletes who participate in sports like horse racing (jockeys), boxing, and wrestling and select unsafe dietary strategies in order to make a particular weight class for competition.

Carbohydrates and fats are long-distance fuels. A diet low in either one will temper performance advancement. Protein is essential for repair and recovery of damaged tissues and to keep the body healthy as it is driven in distance and duration. Typical recommendations for carbohydrate are 5–7 g/kg body weight per day for general training. With exercise of increased distance and duration, a carbohydrate intake of 8–10 g/kg/day has been shown to be a successful dietary strategy for fueling performance. Male athletes are more likely to achieve these recommendations than female athletes. Due to their lower energy requirements, it is often difficult to consume this much carbohydrate and maintain control of body weight, an essential factor in long-distance sports [12]. These calorie and carbohydrate deficits can lead to disruption of metabolic control and are therefore essential to monitor in female and male athletes [13].

The protein needs of endurance athletes are close to twice the Dietary Reference Intakes for the general population. According to research studies, an intake of 1.4–1.8 g/kg/day of protein is an important target for support of endurance exercise [14, 15].

The difficulty with these recommendations is that once you add up the carbohydrate and protein needs of the diet, there is little room left for fat. However, the critical role that monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fats play in health promotion, disease prevention, hormone production, weight control, mood, and cognitive function requires their adequate inclusion in the diet. The proportion of calories from fat in the diet should not go below 25 % for any extensive length of time. The role of fats is so important that if calories are restricted it is advisable to reduce the proportion of carbohydrates in the diet to leave room for adequate protein and fat [16]. However, with appreciable energy restriction, a lowering of energy output is advisable to avoid gross metabolic disturbances [13].

There is little disagreement on the nutritional requirements of building strength and power. Carbohydrate is required to fuel muscle building and sports-specific exercise, protein is essential to tissue recovery, repair, and growth, and fat is essential for production of the hormones that allow the entire anabolic process to move forward.

The protein needs of strength trainers and bodybuilders are higher than those of endurance athletes. When energy intake is adequate, protein needs during a building phase range from 2.0 to 2.5 g/kg body weight per day and are closely linked to total energy consumption. Carbohydrate needs are lower than those of endurance athletes and range from 4.5 to 7.0 g/kg/day depending on intensity and frequency of training. Depending on energy intake, 25–30 % of total calories will come from healthy fats [11].