Hyperparathyroidism, abnormal vitamin D metabolism, and the use of prednisone all lead to reduced calcium absorption and further contribute to bone loss post kidney transplant. At the same time, calcium supplementation alone is ineffective in maintaining BMD or reducing fracture risk [78]. A Cochrane Database Review of 24 trials found that no individual intervention with either vitamin D, calcitonin, or bisphosphonates was associated with reduced fracture risk but that when the results of all trials were combined, any one of these treatments proved effective against fracture risk and all had a beneficial effect on BMD at the lumbar spine [79]. This study supports the concurrent use of vitamin D (with or without calcium) and bisphosphonates to reduce the deleterious effects of immunosuppressive therapy on bone density after transplant and indicates that any intervention to alter bone metabolism can reduce fracture risk in the year following surgery. With respect to calcium supplementation, Torres et al. report that intermittent-dose calcitriol during the first three months posttransplant, followed by oral calcium supplementation during the first year, decreased the rate of bone loss at the total hip compared with calcium supplementation alone, without any adverse effect on hypercalcemia levels [80].

The relation between vitamin D and hypercalciuria admits of mixed findings. A recent study reported that hypercalciuria occurred more frequently in a vitamin D supplementation group, leading to a reduction in the dosage or treatment discontinuation in 30 % of patients; calcium supplementation was also cited as a possible cause of hypercalciuria. It is clear that additional randomized controlled trials are required to determine the most effective dose and optimal duration of supplementation as well as to assess the specific impact on fracture risk [81]. Until then, the level of calcium and vitamin D supplementation is determined on an individual basis taking into account regular screening results to determine the extent of bone damage, as well as the severity of the disease and existing comorbidities such as diabetes.

As in the case of dietary supplementation, exercise programs must be tailored to individual needs of the individual and, to the extent possible, should encompass mechanical loading, stretching, and strengthening regimens. Although the primary goal of exercise in the posttransplant phase is to reduce cardiovascular risk and improve graft function [81], the benefits of exercise extend to increasing BMD and preventing fractures by advancing motor fitness, improving balance, and decreasing fall risk. However, analyses of the efficacy and effectiveness of exercise post renal transplant are few in number, and the lack of evidence, in itself, represents one of the principal factors contributing to low exercise rates [82]. Gordon et al. point to several other reasons underlying reduced physical activity: (1) lack of motivation and interest, coupled with fear of injuring the graft, (2) limited knowledge of the benefits of exercise on the part of healthcare professionals faced with what they consider to be more immediate and compelling concerns, and (3) inadequate reimbursement for physical activity programs and counseling on the part of insurance carriers. Exercise may be particularly difficult to initiate in older renal transplant recipients with reduced physical performance prior to transplant, as well as in younger patients who have been shown to be less physically active pretransplant by a measure of 25 % in comparison with healthy subjects [83].

The guidelines adopted by Kidney Disease: Improving Global Outcomes (KDIGO) recommend that at least 30 min of moderate-intensity exercise (walking, cycling, slow jogging) be undertaken on most, preferably all, days of the weeks, as adapted to the needs and capacity of the individual [84]. In a highly cited randomized clinical trial, Painter et al. found that one year after transplant, an exercise intervention group increased its regular physical activity from 50 to 67 %, whereas the “usual care” group experienced a decline from 47 to 36 %; in addition the exercise group realized significantly greater gains in peak oxygen uptake (VO₂), muscle strength, and physical functioning [85]. Although guidelines and studies such as these have not directly addressed bone disease in renal transplant, they do raise awareness of the need to develop exercise regimens directed to individual needs as well as to conduct new empirical research on the safety and efficacy of specific exercise training programs with respect to the different outcomes of the transplant process including osteoporosis. Recent findings on the correlation between low physical activity and the risk of cardiovascular and all-cause mortality in renal transplant [86] may well stimulate further examinations of the impact of exercise on mineral and bone disorders as well as on fracture risk, leading to an improved quality of life.

As noted at the outset of this section, the value of bisphosphonates in kidney transplant is tempered by their potential to oversuppress bone metabolism. Given that concern, the general consensus is that bisphosphonates should not be used in kidney patients with low bone turnover that could be further exacerbated by these drugs, possibly increasing fracture risk. Studies of the effect of alendronate, pamidronate, and zoledronic acid have demonstrated benefits in terms of increased BMD.

In a 12-month analysis of kidney patients receiving 10 mg/day of alendronate plus calcitriol and calcium issued in 2001, BMD increased significantly by 5 % at the lumbar spine and 4 % at the femoral neck and bone turnover normalized; at the same time, bone continued to be lost due to prednisone treatment and persistent hyperparathyroidism [87]. Two intravenous doses of pamidronate given to male patients at the time of transplantation and one month later prevented early rapid bone loss, with no significant reduction at the lumbar vertebrae and femoral neck [88]. The regimen was well tolerated and easy to administer, with no detrimental effect on renal function and no discernible side effects. A subsequent study confirmed the efficacy of IV pamidronate in preserving bone mass but did observe an increased risk of low bone turnover [89].

A trial involving the third-generation bisphosphonate, zoledronic acid (ZA) reported that, at six months, two infusions of IV ZA increased trabecular calcium content significantly, with no change in BMD at the femoral neck. However, as Fratianni et al. have observed, the early bone-sparing effects of short-term ZA could not be sustained at three years after transplantation [90]. In addition, FDA warnings concerning the deterioration of renal function and renal failure resulting from ZA must also be taken into account, with dose reduction as recommended.

Still in their infancy, comparative analyses of these medications are impaired by the small sample sizes and the heterogeneous nature of the research, particularly with respect to time duration following transplant. Based solely on randomized controlled trials, a recent meta-analysis of bisphosphonates posttransplant [91] concluded that they were beneficial to BMD at the lumbar spine but not at the femoral neck. Although changes in vertebral and nonvertebral fractures or in adverse events were not associated with their use; bisphosphonates were not found to reduce fracture incidence. As a result of this study, the largest database on the use of bisphosphonates in patients undergoing renal transplantation is now in place and can serve as the basis for further analyses of their efficacy and safety as new information is obtained.

In general, bisphosphonates which are renally excreted are not recommended for kidney transplant patients with moderate to severe renal insufficiency. As an alternative, denosumab, the fully human monoclonal antibody against RANKL, has recently been investigated to determine its effect on BMD in renal transplant, with results indicating that it significantly increased areal BMD at vertebral and nonvertebral sites [92]. Unlike bisphosphonates it improved cortical volumetric BMD and thickness at the distal tibia and radius while decreasing levels of blood and urine biomarkers in bone turnover. Although associated with more frequent episodes of urinary tract infections, denosumab has the potential to improve bone health posttransplant and to sustain bone retention with long-term use. Synthetic parathyroid hormone (PTH) in the form of teriparatide does not improve BMD early after kidney transplantation, nor do histological analyses or bone markers provide evidence of improved bone turnover or mineralization [93].

The challenges of managing kidney recipients are many, emphasizing the importance of regular monitoring to determine the status of bone loss. Reduced doses of immunosuppressive therapy as well as early corticosteroid withdrawal, calcium and vitamin D supplementation as needed, increased physical activity, and the prudent use of bisphosphonates targeted at high-fracture risk recipients must be weighed carefully by an interdisciplinary team responsible for the care of transplant patients.