Introduction

Over the last decades yoga has become very popular in the western world. Different schools, adult education centers, health centers, clinics, and private teachers are offering yoga classes and sessions. The programs for training yoga teachers are increasingly controlled by professional associations, health insurances, and other authorities. Within yoga the health aspect has become particularly relevant. An unpublished pilot study conducted by the authors of this book evaluated 200 questionnaires and 50 interviews with adult participants of yoga classes. It was found that the initial motivation to start practicing yoga was pain or discomfort, or just getting fit. Eventually yoga helped respondents to master the difficulties of life and to regain confidence or equilibrium after difficult periods of life.

When we try to describe and define yoga, we must bear in mind that yoga was developed in ancient India, in a time and a culture completely different from that of our present western world. The word “yoga” belongs to the old Indian Sanskrit language. A Sanskrit dictionary lists three pages of meanings for this term (Gode & Karve 1979). Among these interpretations, union, control, and mastery are particularly relevant (Fuchs 1990).

There follows a short history of yoga which should help readers to understand its depth. Wherever we have met teachers and students of yoga, this original Indian expression is used, not translated into any other language. Nevertheless the practice of yoga is influenced by individual and cultural factors. It is certainly not a route to the instant acquisition of knowledge and abilities. It requires the willingness to become involved in study and practice, to work with compliance and dedication. This may mean changes in lifestyle, in order to plan the time necessary for the practice of yoga.

The Vedas

Probably the oldest traces of yoga originate from the third millennium bc: stone tablets have been found dating from this epoch showing goddesses in positions reminiscent of yoga postures. The word “yoga” and the related verb “yuj” are seen for the first time in the sahitās. The sahitās are collections of texts of the Veda, that is, the holy knowledge. There are four collections: (1) the g-Veda, written in the 12th century bc or even earlier; (2) the Sāma-Veda; (3) Yajur-Veda; and (4) Atharva- Veda, probably written between 1200 and 1000 bc. The Vedas contain descriptions of methods and rituals that bring to mind the yoga techniques of mindfulness, concentration, meditation, and breathing exercises.

The Upaniads

The first texts on yoga are contained in the Upaniads. “Upa” means close to something or somebody, “ni” means down, and “ad” is to sit. Indeed, these texts indicate the importance of sitting close to a teacher, and of listening attentively; they emphasize the relationship between teacher and student (Bäumer 1986).

As has already been seen with the Vedas, researchers on ancient Indian texts are still unsure when these texts were written. Different authors give discrepancies of several decades for many texts. Dating seems to be particularly difficult for the Upaniads, some of which were contained in the Vedas, while some were written after the Vedas. Initially the Upaniads were only spoken and learned by heart and passed on by word of mouth from generation to generation. Eventually they were written down. In many cases the precise period is unknown and different authors and scientists give contradictory dates.

The Upaniads were written in the first millennium bc. The oldest ones belong to the vedic school; different schools and branches developed later on. The Upaniads contain descriptions of old magic rituals, mythical stories, profound philosophical thoughts, prayers, and songs. In particular the later Upaniads from the seventh century bc onwards begin to form the concept of yoga. These texts have been an important source for the development of yoga. The knowledge they teach is not only academic, learned by the brain; it also changes its students. They develop many ways to heighten consciousness and focus inner concentration. The concept of body and mind also originates in these texts. Overcoming obstacles to this development is called “yoga” in these texts.

Until now the Kaha-Upaniad has been considered to be the first textbook on yoga. Most authors date it to the fifth century bc, although it could be a few centuries older than that. The unknown author of this text describes yoga as inner stability and balance, both of which depend upon constant concentration (Feuerstein 2001). The highest level is reached when the five senses of perception, the thoughts, and the mind are all calm. Mastering the senses in this way and being free from distraction is yoga (Bäumer 1986).

A first description of yoga practice can be found in the Śvetāśvatara-Upaniad, which is usually dated to the fourth or third century bc, but also could be older. Śvetāśvatara may be the name of the author. In the second part of the text precise instructions can be found on sitting posture and breathing. The trunk, neck, and head should be held straight, and the sensory organs and the mind are focused on the heart. If the fluctuations of the mind are calmed, and the breath is controlled, the breath through the nose should be refined. Eight further Yoga Upaniads were written, probably after this, that are quite poetic – the Yoga Upaniads of the Atharva-Veda. These describe a yoga path consisting of six stages, similar to the path described in the Yoga-Sūtras of Patañjali (Michel & Deussen 2006).

The Yoga-Sūtras of Patañjali

At some point between 200 bc and ad 400 the Indian sage Patañjali collected together previous knowledge about yoga and summarized it in a concise collection of 195 aphorisms, the Yoga-Sūtras. The Yoga-Sūtras are still the primary source text on yoga.

The main pillars of the yoga path are abhyāsa and vairāgya. Abhyāsa is learning through disciplined, dedicated practice. Vairāgya is avoiding whatever is distracting from the path of learning. The core concept is the calming of the fluctuations of consciousness: “yogaś-citta-vtti-nirodha” (Feuerstein 1989, p. 26). “Yogaś” is the “integration from the outermost layer to the innermost self, that is, from the skin to the muscles, bones, nerves, mind, intellect, will, consciousness and self” (Iyengar 2002a, p. 49). “Citta” means consciousness, “vtti” fluctuations, and “nirodha” is gradual calming, becoming free from distractions.

The path of yoga practice contains eight aspects or limbs of yoga: yama, niyama, āsana, prāāyāma, pratyāhāra, dhāraā, dhyāna, and samādhi. Yama refers to the ethical, social aspects of not harming anyone, being honest, not stealing, controlling your wishes and desires, being free from envy and attachment. Niyama consists of five aspects of purifying oneself: cleanliness, contentedness, fervor for study and practice, personal immersion into the profundity of the yoga texts, and surrender to the divine source. Āsana is a firm, calm sitting posture, not being distracted. The body, mind, and soul are involved in positioning. The various āsanas that are used now and their therapeutic aspects were developed later. Prāāyāma is expanding the breath to control the life energy. Inhalation and exhalation are carefully elongated and refined. In the pauses between inhalation and exhalation, and exhalation and inhalation, inner stillness can be experienced. Pratyāhāra is the result of practicing the previous four stages. It is calming the senses and therefore the wandering mind, too. It is preparing for the remaining three stages. Once the senses are no longer distracted, dhāraā will be possible. This is concentration free of tension in all areas of the body. From the correct practice of dhāraā dhyāna, meditation, develops. Emotional calmness is added to the relaxed state of the body, while the mind remains fully aware and alert. The final, highest stage of this path is samādhi.

Between the first and seventh century ad Thirumoolar wrote a yoga text, Thirumandiram, in the south Indian Tamil language. There are some hints that Thirumoolar was a contemporary of Patañjali, and that both had the same teacher. The Yoga-Sūtras were originally written in Sanskrit, unlike the Thirumandiram, which was in Tamil, and it was not until 1993 that this latter text was translated into English for the first time by Govindan (Thirumoolar & Govindan 1993). It may be because the text was only in the Tamil language that many experts have been unaware that both texts share a common content.