Fig. 20.1
Four phases of swing: (1) address, (2) backswing, (3) downswing, (4) contact/follow through
Address
The beginning of the swing starts here with the proper posture. Weight should be evenly distributed between both feet with a slight increase in pressure on the forefoot and on the insides of both feet. Depending on the club used and the length of the swing, determines the width of stance. The longer the club and swing, then the wider the stance. Middle irons generally call for the feet to be shoulder width apart. Correct width of stance ensures one can create a turn without restricting one’s pelvic rotation [5]. A stable address can be considered the beginning building block in creating club-head velocity.
Backswing
The purpose of backswing is to provide for an efficient yet powerful downswing. This requires a stable body core, proper foot alignment, and aligned club-head [6]. Backswing is initiated when the front foot starts to unload with a laterally to medially directed force. During early backswing, weight is shifted to the back foot that is evenly distributed. As backswing progresses, lateral forces increase on the back foot, creating more momentum on downswing. However, excessive weight shift laterally leaves a player unstable resulting in sway. Sway will result in a decrease in power and poor ball striking. Simultaneously, the forces shift from anterior to posterior in the front foot and posterior to anterior in the back foot [2]. This can result in the front foot heel potentially coming up, which is acceptable to allow for a full shoulder turn. The average shoulder rotation (78°–102°) is approximately 2× hip rotation (47°–55°). Overall, in elite players the backswing has been found to be 0.82 s [6, 7].
Downswing
Downswing brings a rapid shift of weight laterally directed from the back foot to the front foot. The back foot is the “driver” here which accelerates the body’s center of mass to the front foot [3]. As weight shifts laterally, it unloads the back foot, leaving a medially placed stress on the hallux and first MPJ of the back foot. The momentum also brings down the heel of the front foot. This reestablishes a supporting position, similar to the front foot at address, to allow for the upcoming unwinding and contact. Ultimately, both feet perform a turning moment crucial to downswing [3]. The centrifugal forces here have been measured at 1.6× body weight [3, 8]. The now increasing ground reactive forces, with an optimum weight transfer from back to front foot, will increase club-head velocity. Therefore , the shoe/ground interface is a vital link to performance of the swing [6, 9].
Contact and Follow Through
From the ground up the swing is unwinding. The front foot is now similar to the address phase in terms of position and weighting and stable at contact, established without unwinding the upper body and storing the energy to be laterally directed toward the target. At impact the hips are now open 2–3× the shoulders. Max torque is now doubled on the front versus the back foot with up to 80% of body weight on the front leg [6, 9, 10]. As the swing continues, it decelerates with pressure finishing on the outside and heel of the front foot and increasing onto the hallux and first MPJ of the back foot with upward pressure almost lifting the player off the ground. At finish of follow through the player should be upright, facing the target and well balanced.
Anatomy of a Golf Shoe
Upper Materials
In golf the upper materials need to provide support, stability, ventilation, and lend waterproof properties. The quality, feel, and now appearance of the material influence overall shoe comfort, function, and desirability. The most popular material is full grain leather. After processing it is added to the exterior of the shoe creating a stretch-free and form fitting waterproof shoe. Leather uppers are generally more expensive but breathe well and are best suited for warmer play. Synthetic nonporous polyester uppers are a less expensive option to leather. It is spread over the shoe and is lighter and thinner than leather but less breathable. Manufacturers now have alternatives in sock lining. The most popular is Gortex®, a thick, water resistant material, excellent in cooler climates. Conversely, Outlast, originally developed by NASA to regulate the temperature of space suits, is now employed by Puma’s Titan Tour shoe. It uses phase changing materials that absorb heat from inside the shoe, regulating heat and comfort. The lasting margin of the upper is attached onto the last which is responsible for the basic fit of the shoe. The most common lasting is a wider forefoot, standard midfoot, and slightly narrower heel. The wide forefoot allows for comfort, freedom of motion, and easier balance supporting swing mechanics.
Outsole
The outsole material comes in direct contact with the ground. Golf shoe outsoles are designed wider than traditional athletic shoes to provide stability, traction, and durability versus designed for mobility. They are manufactured from leather, nylon, and now more commonly TPU or vulcanized rubber. Spikes are strategically placed on the outsole to improve traction and are either molded as a one piece construction or with spikes that are removable and attached by different methods to the outsole. The traditional dress heel on outsoles are made to go along with the natural motion of swing. But more commonly today, there is a shift toward a sports wedge with midsole design.
Midsole
The midsole of a golf shoe provides shock absorption but also is important in supporting lateral movement and stability. Traditional materials include polyurethane, various rubber compounds, and EVA. Manufacturers are now borrowing technologies from athletic shoes to create more comfort and to decrease the weight of the shoe. Utilizing a lighter weight shoe, over the course of 4–5 miles walked, will markedly decrease leg fatigue during a round of golf.
Spikes/Cleats
As golf has increased in popularity so has the damage to golf courses specifically putting greens. This is believed to be due to the traditional 6–8 mm metal spikes that compact the soil preventing and weakening deep root formation. The spikes then compress and grip the grass roots leaving turf damage [11, 12]. This has led to the ban on metal spikes at golf courses and the creation of alternative spike and molded designs. Alternative spikes are also commonly referred to as cleats or spikeless. On golf shoes, the alternative spikes are shorter than on football or soccer cleats. They are designed to allow for the motion of the swing versus for running. To counteract the depth penetration of only 1–3 mm into the turf, the contact area is made wider with multiple legs or swirls incorporating sole moldings between spikes [13]. Many options are available but commonly seen are six or nine alternative spikes strategically placed. Rubber soled “street shoes” have studs, bars, or nubs in place of golf spikes. Essentially designed for style and comfort, the trade-off can be less grip and stability on the course.
Lacing
Golf shoe lacing is dominated by traditional athletic footwear closure. Velcro closures are easy to use but seen infrequently due to the lack of stability transferred to the upper, slippage, and their overall style. Velcro is reserved mostly for golfing sandals. New proprietary systems, such as the BOA closure system, are entering the marketplace (Fig. 20.2). The BOA closure system consists of steel lace, nylon guides, and a mechanical reel. With the turn of a knob, shoe fit can be “dialed in” for a glove-like fit. The system claims improved comfort, lighter weight, faster operation on the fly, and cleaner looks.
Fig. 20.2
BOA closure system
How to Fit
Golf shoes should fit well, feel comfortable, and offer considerable support (see Table 20.1). Due to the supportive nature of golf shoes, they should fit more snugly than an average pair of shoes. However, if the width is too small, besides being painful over a round of golf, the foot is unable to spread out creating instability. The poorly fitting shoes will also wear out faster and provide less support and cushioning affecting swing mechanics [14]. Conversely, if the shoes are too big, the feet will slide during swing, losing traction and also affecting the swing.
Table 20.1
Ten fitting tips
• Measure both feet with a Brannock Device, if different use longer size |
• Wear socks you will play golf in when trying on new shoes |
• There should be 1/2″ space between longest toe to the end of the shoe when standing |
• Choose shoes based on foot type. Pronated feet need shoes considered firm cushioning and semiflexible, supinated feet need cushioned shoes with stable flexibility, neutral feet have more choices but should steer toward the best-constructed shoes |
• Width and length must be considered for fitting; width disparities are usually of greater importance for stability |
• To check if too wide, when bending the forefoot if too much bunching or breaking of the leather likely too wide as foot not filling volume of the shoe. Another test is to take the insole/liner out and stand on it to check width if unsure |
• If top eyelets touch after tying laces, shoe is too wide |
• Eyelets greater than 5/8″ apart, indicate that the shoe is too narrow |
• Should be no slippage in the heel |
• Shoes should be comfortable when buying |
Current Designs
Historically, golf shoes were wingtip oxfords with spikes . They offered water resistance and stability due to the metal spike’s grip and a more stable upper. Oxfords weighed approximately 32 oz. Shoes generally now weigh 50% less, thanks to the availability of multiple high-tech lightweight materials. The reduction in weight provides less fatigue on the legs during a round of golf. This has been one of the biggest differences in the last 10–15 years.
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