Shoes are vital to man’s sole. It is no secret that feet manage the challenges of daily life with the help of shoes. Shoes can stabilize, allow for flexibility or rigidity, cushion, and, in some cases, even injure feet. With the evolution of fast paced lifestyles , shoes have been scientifically engineered to provide the most comfort and to perform at the highest level for the individual who wears them, but shoes have not always been as systematically constructed.

The earliest footwear ever recorded was discovered by Luther Cressman inside Fort Rock Cav e in Oregon and dated to the end of the last ice age, making it almost 10,000 years old [1]. The simple construction incorporated sagebrush bark knotted together, creating an outsole with ridges for traction, a covering for the forefoot, and straps to go around the heel. Although people did not devote much attention to detail when making shoes in the past, even early human beings realized that a basic piece of material covering their feet could afford them the opportunity to explore a larger part of their world.

As the Olympics gained much success in a remarkable empire, the society began to devote more attention to shoes. Most ancient Greek athletes barely wore any clothes let alone running shoes, but these dedicated competitors began to observe that champions from colder climates wore race sandals [2]. Thus, the Greeks gave up the initial notion that their rivals were cheating and realized that this type of foot covering actually increased traction. As the popularity of competitive events in ancient civilizations grew, so did the advancement of running sandals.

The ancient Etruscans attached the sole of the sandal to the upper with metal tacks, while the Romans used tongs to wrap the shoe as close to the foot as possible to maximize traction [2]. The Romans ultimately excelled in shoemaking and created many styles from sandals to boots to moccasins. Personal commitment to athletic sovereignty and to the success of one’s own empire drove the ancient Greeks and Romans to investigate ways to increase human performance through the use of manmade enhancements like shoes.

It wasn’t until the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries in Britain that careful thought was once again given to sports and the running shoe. The first sports-specific shoe was not developed for running but for cricket [1]. The Spencer cricket shoe, a low-cut, leather construction with three spikes under the forefoot and one under the heel, was developed in 1861, and these spiked shoes became an essential part of competing. Then from 1864 to 1896 the sport of track flourished and runners began to compete with low-cut shoes made of kangaroo leather uppers, leather soles with six mounted spikes on the forefoot, and leather half-sole [1]. Once runners decided that the circular track was too confining, they took a step away from the track, began to run long distance races, and the running shoe took another leap forward.

Initially, marathon runners of the early Modern Olympic Games competed in heavy boots or shoes with leather uppers and soles, allowing for little plasticity. With the increasing popularity of the running events, the Spalding Company addressed the need for running shoes among the public and advertised a high-cut, black leather shoe with a reinforced heel and a sole of gum rubber, but the outsole did not last long and further improvements needed to be made [1]. In the 1940s, the famous marathon runners, Johnny Kelly and Jock Semple, were having serious problems with the crude manufacturing of their running shoes, so Richings , a retired English shoemaker, created a pair with a seamless toe box, laces on the side of the shoe, a separate heel, a low-cut rear part without a counter, and a repairable outsole [1]. The race of another sort was on as individuals from around the world joined in the shoemaking effort to see who could devise the better shoe.

Joseph William Foster opened up a family-owned shoe business called J.W. Foster and Sons Limited in 1895 in Bolton, UK. This dedicated company made thin leather shoes constructed of rigid leather to be worn by Lord Burghley in the 1924 Olympics [2]. A notable advancement occurred when Foster’s company began to stitch a leather strip around the top of the shoe [2]. However, in 1958 the grandsons of Foster, Jeffrey and Joseph, left their grandfather’s business and conceived Reebok. The company’s name originated from a Dutch word that refers to a type of antelope or gazelle. In the 1980s, Reebok explored the market of women’s shoes by designing a flimsy but eye-catching shoe, and the aerobic era added to Reebok’s faithful following [2]. The Reebok Freestyle was developed to be worn in or out of the gym. Later in the decade, Reebok created the Pump, consisting of an air bladder in the tongue of the shoe, to hold the ankle in a more fixed position.

In Germany, Adolf Dassler began making shoes in 1920 and was later joined by his brother, Rudolph. Their popular shoe was worn by successful German athletes and even donned by Jesse Owens in at least one of his races at the 1936 Munich Olympics [1]. Despite their success, a bitter family feud in 1948 divided the brothers, their small community in West Germany , and the thriving shoe company. Adolf Dassler created Adidas while Rudolph formed Puma, and the two companies have been competing in the runner’s world ever since. Adidas assumed the trefoil sign that represented Adolf’s three sons [1]. He used arch support lacing which is an early form of speed lacing and the classic, three stripes to help support the foot in his shoes [1]. On the other side of town, Puma chose the leaping puma as its logo to convey speed and power.

Onitsuka Co. Ltd. started constructing shoes in 1949. At the 1951 Boston Marathon, a young Japanese runner by the name of Shigeki Tanaka won the coveted race and displayed the Tiger shoes as he crossed the finish line. This shoe was designed with the traditional Japanese shoe, the Geta, in mind and had a separate compartment for the big toe. The shoe with the divided toe box could only be worn by Japanese athletes with a large space between the first and second digits [1]. Eventually, the shoe company known as Tiger became ASICS, which is a Latin acronym for “healthy mind in a healthy body.”

William J. Riley founded the Riley Company, the predecessor to New Balance, and began crafting shoes in the New England area in 1906. In 1961, the new owner of New Balance, Paul Kidd, took the experience he had gleaned from making orthopedic shoes, poured his knowledge into a running shoe, tested it scientifically, and invented the first modern running shoe, the New Balance Trackster [1]. Due to interest by runners, New Balance modified its Trackster by increasing the heel height, adding a continuous outsole, and placing a wedge of rubber under the back part of the heel. As the aerobic revolution began in 1968, New Balance extended its grasp on the sports shoe arena and Americans were encouraged to walk away from the couch and start exercising [1]. In response to the need for dual usage , New Balance introduced the Speed Star that was designed to be worn on and off the track.

University of Oregon track coach, Bill Bowerman, knew what he wanted in a running shoe, and he even created shoes for his track team members because his understanding of running form and shoe construction presented higher standards than those set by the current market. In 1964, Bowerman joined forces with one of his ex-athletes, Phil Knight, and began a small shoe company called Blue Ribbon Sports that made a line of shoes with the Tiger shoe company in Japan [3]. Bowerman and Knight were extremely busy, so through the extra efforts of Jeff Johnson, a former collegiate runner at Stanford, the Tiger Marathon and Roadrunner became the most popular running shoes on the market in 1967 [1]. The Tiger Marathon had a light rubber outsole with a separate heel and forepart, including a reverse leather upper. In 1967, they continued to modify the running world as they offered all nylon uppers. Johnson created the idea of a continuous midsole by removing the outsole of the Tiger shoe and replacing it with a shower slipper with an outer layer of rubber.

In 1972, Tiger and Blue Ribbon Sports separated over distribution disputes [1]. Fortunately, the American following of Bowerman and Knight’s did not falter with the disintegration of this partnership. With the addition of a “swoosh” logo from one of Knight’s students at Portland State College and the appropriate naming of Nike for the winged, Greek goddess of victory from Jeff Johnson’s dream, this fresh company was able to continue production by establishing a deal with one of Tiger’s competitors [1, 3]. Further changes in their shoes occurred as Bowerman and a colleague, Jeff Holister, used urethane and a waffle iron to construct extremely light running shoes [1]. Since its conception, the Nike Company has dominated the shoe world and continues to strive for perfection.

The Brooks Company began in 1914 by making ice skates and cleated shoes. During the running craze in the 1970s, the company flourished in the running shoe market. In 1974, Jerry Tuner called a chemical engineer who introduced the light, shock-absorbing material of ethylene vinyl acetate, more commonly known as EVA, to anxious customers [1].

For decades, running shoe companies have been dueling to make a better shoe and perhaps a bigger profit, but it wasn’t until podiatrists and researches became involved that shoes were able to evolve once more to deliver maximum performance.