Essential and Nonessential Micronutrients and Sport


Life stage group

Vitamin A (μg/day)a

Vitamin C (mg/day)

Vitamin D (μg/day)b,c

Vitamin E (mg/day)d

Vitamin K (μg/day)

Thiamin (mg/day)

Riboflavin (mg/day)

Niacin (mg/day)e

Vitamin B6 (mg/day)

Folate (μg/day)f

Vitamin B12 (μg/day)

Pantothenic acid (mg/day)

Biotin (μg/day)

Choline (mg/day)g

Infants

0–6 months

400*

40*

10

4*

2.0*

0.2*

0.3*

2*

0.1*

65*

0.4*

1.7*

5*

125*

6–12 months

500*

50*

10

5*

2.5*

0.3*

0.4*

4*

0.3*

80*

0.5*

1.8*

6*

150*

Children

1–3 years

300

15

15

6

30*

0.5

0.5

6

0.5

150

0.9

2*

8*

200*

4–8 years

400

25

15

7

55*

0.6

0.6

8

0.6

200

1.2

3*

12*

250*

Males

9–13 years

600

45

15

11

60*

0.9

0.9

12

1.0

300

1.8

4*

20*

375*

14–18 years

900

75

15

15

75*

1.2

1.3

16

1.3

400

2.4

5*

25*

550*

19–30 years

900

90

15

15

120*

1.2

1.3

16

1.3

400

2.4

5*

30*

550*

31–50 years

900

90

15

15

120*

1.2

1.3

16

1.3

400

2.4

5*

30*

550*

51–70 years

900

90

15

15

120*

1.2

1.3

16

1.7

400

2.4 h

5*

30*

550*

> 70 years

900

90

20

15

120*

1.2

1.3

16

1.7

400

2.4 h

5*

30*

550*

Females

9–13 years

600

45

15

11

60*

0.9

0.9

12

1.0

300

1.8

4*

20*

375*

14–18 years

700

65

15

15

75*

1.0

1.0

14

1.2

400 i

2.4

5*

25*

400*

19–30 years

700

75

15

15

90*

1.1

1.1

14

1.3

400 i

2.4

5*

30*

425*

31–50 years

700

75

15

15

90*

1.1

1.1

14

1.3

400 i

2.4

5*

30*

425*

51–70 years

700

75

15

15

90*

1.1

1.1

14

1.5

400

2.4 h

5*

30*

425*

> 70 years

700

75

20

15

90*

1.1

1.1

14

1.5

400

2.4 h

5*

30*

425*

Pregnancy

14–18 years

750

80

15

15

75*

1.4

1.4

18

1.9

600 j

2.6

6*

30*

450*

19–30 years

770

85

15

15

90*

1.4

1.4

18

1.9

600 j

2.6

6*

30*

450*

31–50 years

770

85

15

15

90*

1.4

1.4

18

1.9

600 j

2.6

6*

30*

450*

Lactation

14–18 years

1,200

115

15

19

75*

1.4

1.6

17

2.0

500

2.8

7*

35*

550*

19–30 years

1,300

120

15

19

90*

1.4

1.6

17

2.0

500

2.8

7*

35*

550*

31–50 years

1,300

120

15

19

90*

1.4

1.6

17

2.0

500

2.8

7*

35*

550*


Note: This table (taken from the DRI reports, see www.​nap.​edu) presents recommended dietary allowances (RDAs) in bold type and adequate intakes (AIs) in ordinary type followed by an asterisk (*). An RDA is the average daily dietary intake level, sufficient to meet the nutrient requirements of nearly all (97–98 %) healthy individuals in a group. It is calculated from an estimated average requirement (EAR). If sufficient scientific evidence is not available to establish an EAR and thus calculate an RDA, an AI is usually developed. For healthy breast-fed infants, an AI is the mean intake. The AI for other life stage and gender groups is believed to cover the needs of all healthy individuals in the groups, but lack of data or uncertainty in the data prevents being able to specify with confidence the percentage of individuals covered by this intake

Sources: Dietary reference intakes for calcium, phosphorus, magnesium, vitamin D, and fluoride (1997); Dietary reference intakes for thiamin, riboflavin, niacin, vitamin B6, folate, vitamin B12, pantothenic acid, biotin, and choline (1998); Dietary reference intakes for vitamin C, vitamin E, selenium, and carotenoids (2000); Dietary reference intakes for vitamin A, vitamin K, arsenic, boron, chromium, copper, iodine, iron, manganese, molybdenum, nickel, silicon, vanadium, and zinc (2001); Dietary reference intakes for water, potassium, sodium, chloride, and sulfate (2005); and Dietary reference intakes for calcium and vitamin D (2011). These reports may be accessed via www.​nap.​edu

aAs retinol activity equivalents (RAEs). 1 RAE = 1 μg retinol, 12 μg β-carotene, 24 μg α-carotene, or 24 μg β-cryptoxanthin. The RAE for dietary provitamin A carotenoids is twofold greater than retinol equivalents (RE), whereas the RAE for preformed vitamin A is the same as RE

bAs cholecalciferol. 1 μg cholecalciferol = 40 IU vitamin D

cUnder the assumption of minimal sunlight

dAs α-tocopherol. α-Tocopherol includes RRR-α–tocopherol, the only form of α-tocopherol that occurs naturally in foods, and the 2R-stereoisomeric forms of α-tocopherol (RRR-, RSR-, RRS-, and RSS-α-tocopherol) that occur in fortified foods and supplements. It does not include the 2S-stereoisomeric forms of α-tocopherol (SRR-, SSR-, SRS-, and SSS-α-tocopherol), also found in fortified foods and supplements

eAs niacin equivalents (NE). 1 mg of niacin = 60 mg of tryptophan; 0–6 months = preformed niacin (not NE)

fAs dietary folate equivalents (DFE). 1 DFE = 1 μg food folate = 0.6 μg of folic acid from fortified food or as a supplement consumed with food = 0.5 μg of a supplement taken on an empty stomach

gAlthough AIs have been set for choline, there are few data to assess whether a dietary supply of choline is needed at all stages of the life cycle, and it may be that the choline requirement can be met by endogenous synthesis at some of these stages

hBecause 10–30 % of older people may malabsorb food-bound B12, it is advisable for those older than 50 years to meet their RDA mainly by consuming foods fortified with B12 or a supplement containing B12

iIn view of evidence linking folate intake with neural tube defects in the fetus, it is recommended that all women capable of becoming pregnant consume 400 μg from supplements or fortified foods in addition to intake of food folate from a varied diet

jIt is assumed that women will continue consuming 400 μg from supplements or fortified food until their pregnancy is confirmed, and they enter prenatal care, which ordinarily occurs after the end of the periconceptional period—the critical time for formation of the neural tube




Table 5.2
Dietary reference intakes (DRIs): recommended dietary allowances and adequate intakes of elements. Food and Nutrition Board, Institute of Medicine, National Academies








































































































































































































































































































































































































































Life stage group
Calcium (mg/day)
Chromium (μg/day)
Copper (μg/day)
Fluoride (mg/day)
Iodine (μg/day)
Iron (mg/day)
Magnesium (mg/day)
Manganese (mg/day)
Molybdenum (μg/day)
Phosphorus (mg/day)
Selenium (μg/day)
Zinc (mg/day)
Potassium (g/day)
Sodium (g/day)
Chloride (g/day)

Infants

0–6 months
200*
0.2*
200*
0.01*
110*
0.27*
30*
0.003*
2*
100*
15*
2*
0.4*
0.12*
0.18*

6–12 months
260*
5.5*
220*
0.5*
130*
11

75*
0.6*
3*
275*
20*
3

0.7*
0.37*
0.57*

Children

1–3 years
700

11*
340

0.7*
90

7

80

1.2*
17

460

20

3

3.0*
1.0*
1.5*

4–8 years
1,000

15*
440

1*
90

10

130

1.5*
22

500

30

5

3.8*
1.2*
1.9*

Males

9–13 years
1,300

25*
700

2*
120

8

240

1.9*
34

1,250

40

8

4.5*
1.5*
2.3*

14–18 years
1,300

35*
890

3*

150

11

410

2.2*
43

1,250

55

11

4.7*
1.5*
2.3*

19–30 years
1,000

35*
900

4*
150

8

400

2.3*
45

700

55

11

4.7*
1.5*
2.3*

31–50 years
1,000

35*
900

4*
150

8

420

2.3*
45

700

55

11

4.7*
1.5*
2.3*

51–70 years
1,000

30*
900

4*
150

8

420

2.3*
45

700

55

11

4.7*
1.3*
2.0*

> 70 years
1,200

30*
900

4*
150

8

420

2.3*
45

700

55

11

4.7*
1.2*
1.8*

Females

9–13 years
1,300

21*
700

2*
120

8

240

1.6*
34

1,250

40

8

4.5*
1.5*
2.3*

14–18 years
1,300

24*
890

3*
150

15

360

1.6*
43

1,250

55

9

4.7*
1.5*
2.3*

19–30 years
1,000

25*
900

3*
150

18

310

1.8*
45

700

55

8

4.7*
1.5*
2.3*

31–50 years
1,000

25*
900

3*
150

18

320

1.8*
45

700

55

8

4.7*
1.5*
2.3*

51–70 years
1,200

20*
900

3*
150

8

320

1.8*
45

700

55

8

4.7*
1.3*
2.0*

> 70 years
1,200

20*
900

3*
150

8

320

1.8*
45

700

55

8

4.7*
1.2*
1.8*

Pregnancy

14–18 years
1,300

29*
1,000

3*
220

27

400

2.0*
50

1,250

60

12

4.7*
1.5*
2.3*

19–30 years
1,000

30*
1,000

3*
220

27

350

2.0*
50

700

60

11

4.7*
1.5*
2.3*

31–50 years
1,000

30*
1,000

3*
220

27

360

2.0*
50

700

60

11

4.7*
1.5*
2.3*

Lactation

14–18 years
1,300

44*
1,300

3*
290

10

360

2.6*
50

1,250

70

13

5.1*
1.5*
2.3*

19–30 years
1,000

45*
1,300

3*
290

9

310

2.6*
50

700

70

12

5.1*
1.5*
2.3*

31–50 years
1,000

45*
1,300

3*
290

9

320

2.6*
50

700

70

12

5.1*
1.5*
2.3*


Note: This table (taken from the DRI reports, see www.​nap.​edu) presents recommended dietary allowances (RDAs) in bold type and adequate intakes (AIs) in ordinary type followed by an asterisk (*). An RDA is the average daily dietary intake level, sufficient to meet the nutrient requirements of nearly all (97–98 %) healthy individuals in a group. It is calculated from an estimated average requirement (EAR). If sufficient scientific evidence is not available to establish an EAR and thus calculate an RDA, an AI is usually developed. For healthy breast-fed infants, an AI is the mean intake. The AI for other life stage and gender groups is believed to cover the needs of all healthy individuals in the groups, but lack of data or uncertainty in the data prevents being able to specify with confidence the percentage of individuals covered by this intake

Sources: Dietary reference intakes for calcium, phosphorus, magnesium, vitamin D, and fluoride (1997); Dietary reference intakes for thiamin, riboflavin, niacin, vitamin B6, folate, vitamin B12, pantothenic acid, biotin, and choline (1998); Dietary reference intakes for vitamin C, vitamin E, selenium, and carotenoids (2000); and Dietary reference intakes for vitamin A, vitamin K, arsenic, boron, chromium, copper, iodine, iron, manganese, molybdenum, nickel, silicon, vanadium, and zinc (2001); Dietary reference intakes for water, potassium, sodium, chloride, and sulfate (2005); and Dietary reference intakes for calcium and vitamin D (2011). These reports may be accessed via www.​nap.​edu


The purpose of this chapter is to review the function of micronutrients in the body, provide examples of quality dietary sources of each micronutrient, and assess the literature examining how the recommended daily intake of a micronutrient may or may not change with exercise.



5.2 Vitamin Introduction


Vitamins are organic compounds naturally found in small amounts in food products. They are designated as essential nutrients because they cannot be synthesized by the body in amounts that are necessary to support normal physiological function. Generally, vitamins are classified as either water soluble or fat soluble, based on the medium needed for their absorption. Water-soluble vitamins include the B complex (thiamin, riboflavin, niacin, pantothenic acid, pyridoxine, biotin, folic acid, cyanocobalamin) and ascorbic acid (vitamin C), and fat-soluble vitamins include vitamins A, D, E, and K. Each group and its associated vitamins will be examined in detail in the paragraphs that follow.


5.2.1 Water-Soluble Vitamins


As their name suggests, water-soluble vitamins dissolve readily in water and are lost daily in the urine. Because of this, most water-soluble vitamins are not stored in the body, necessitating their regular dietary consumption. The largest contributors to the water-soluble vitamins are the B complex vitamins, including thiamin (B1), riboflavin (B2), niacin (B3), pantothenic acid, pyridoxine (B6), biotin, folic acid, and cyanocobalamin (B12). B vitamins act primarily as coenzymes, facilitating hundreds of chemical reactions in our bodies. Ascorbic acid, or vitamin C, is also a water-soluble vitamin and plays a major role as an antioxidant.


5.2.1.1 Vitamin B1 (Thiamin)


Thiamine monophosphate (TMP), thiamine pyrophosphate (TPP), and thiamine triphosphate (TTP) are the three most studied forms of thiamin. The TPP form makes up ~80 % of thiamin in the body, while TMP and TTP each contribute ~10 %. TPP functions in the metabolism of carbohydrates, by serving as a cofactor in the conversion of pyruvate to acetyl-CoA and in the transketolase reaction, which synthesizes NADPH, deoxyribose, and ribose sugars in the pentose phosphate pathway. Thiamin also plays a role in branch chain amino acid metabolism and may serve a role in nerve conduction and transmission. Although found in a variety of animal products and vegetables, an abundance of thiamin is found in only a few foods (see Table 5.3). There are no known adverse effects associated with thiamin supplementation; therefore, no UL has been set. Deficiency of thiamin may lead to cardiac failure, muscle weakness, neuropathy, and gastrointestinal disturbances (all hallmarks of the thiamin-deficiency disease: beriberi).


Table 5.3
Summary of water-soluble vitamins


























































Nutrient
Function
Adult (nonpregnant) recommended intake
Food sources
Comments for the athlete

Thiamin (B1)
Carbohydrate and amino acid metabolism
• UL: N/A

• Deficiency: weakness, decreased endurance, weight loss
Yeast, pork, fortified grains, cereals, legumes
Studies indicate that there is no need for additional thiamin supplementation above the DRI recommendations with exercise

Riboflavin (B2)
Oxidative metabolism, electron transport system
• UL: N/A

• Deficiency: altered skin and mucous membrane and nervous system function
Milk, almonds, liver, eggs, bread, fortified cereals
Athletes who consume adequate levels through the diet do not require supplementation above the DRI

Niacin (B3)
Oxidative metabolism, electron transport system
• UL: 35 mg/day

• Deficiency: irritability, diarrhea
Meats, fish, legumes, peanuts, some cereals
All persons should obtain the DRI for niacin intake to ensure adequate intake and performance

Pantothenic acid
Essential to the metabolism of fatty acids, amino acids, and carbohydrates
• UL: N/A

• Deficiency: muscle cramps, fatigue, apathy, malaise, nausea, vomiting
Liver, egg yolk, sunflower seeds, mushrooms, peanuts, brewer’s yeast, yogurt, broccoli
Limited research exists on pantothenic acid supplementation and exercise performance

Vitamin B6

Gluconeogenesis
• UL: 100 mg/day

• Deficiency: dermatitis, convulsions
Meats, whole grain products, vegetables, nuts
Exercise has been shown to increase the loss of vitamin B6

Biotin
Cofactor in synthesis of fatty acids, gluconeogenesis, and the metabolism of leucine
• UL: N/A

• Deficiency: dermatitis, alopecia, conjunctivitis
Liver, egg yolk, soybeans, yeast, cereals, legumes, nuts
Not enough information to make a recommendation regarding supplementation and exercise

Folate
Hemoglobin and nucleic acid formation
• UL:1,000 μg/day

• Deficiency: anemia, fatigue
Yeast, liver, fresh green vegetables, strawberries
Exercise does not appear to increase needs

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Oct 16, 2016 | Posted by in SPORT MEDICINE | Comments Off on Essential and Nonessential Micronutrients and Sport

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