Anthropomorphic Test Devices and Injury Risk Assessments

3 year

6 year

10 year

Small female

Midsize male

Large male

Head

Accel. (A_x, A_y, A_z)

Yes

Neck

Head/C1 (F_x, F_y, F_z, M_x, M_y, M_z)

Yes

C7/T1 (F_x, F_y, F_z, M_x, M_y, M_z)

Yes

Shoulder

Clavicle force (F_x, F_z)

Yes

Thorax

Spine accel. (A_x, A_y, A_z)

Yes

Spine force (F_x, F_y, F_z, M_x, M_y)

Yes

Sternum defl. (δ_x)

Yes

Sternum accel. (A_x)

Yes

Abdomen

Lumbar (F_x, F_y, F_z, M_x, M_y, M_z)

Yes

Pelvis

Accel. (A_x, A_y, A_z)

Yes

ASIS (F_x)

Yes

F_x, M_y

Load Bolt

Yes

Pubic loads (F_x, F_z)

Yes

Lower extremities

Femur (F_x, F_y, F_z, M_x, M_y, M_z)

Yes

Tibia-Femur displ. (δ_x)

Yes

Knee clevis (F_z)

Yes

Tibia (F_x, F_y, F_z, M_x, M_y, M_z)

Yes

Because of its excellent biofidelity and measurement capability, GM petitioned the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) in 1983 to allow the use of the Hybrid III midsize adult male dummy as an alternative test device to the Hybrid II for FMVSS 208 compliance testing of passive restraints. Its use was allowed in 1986. In 1990, GM filed a second petition requesting that the Hybrid II dummy be deleted from FMVSS 208 compliance testing. NHTSA deleted the Hybrid II in September 1997, making the Hybrid III the only midsize adult male dummy specified for regulatory frontal restraint evaluation throughout the world. Because the Hybrid III is specified in worldwide regulations, all design changes have to be approved by the various regulatory bodies.

In 1987, the Centers for Disease Control (CDC) awarded a grant to Richard Stalnaker of the Ohio State University (OSU) to develop a Hybrid III-based dummy family. To support this effort, the Mechanical Human Simulation Subcommittee of the Human Biomechanics and Simulation Standards Committee of the Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE) formed a task group of biomechanics, test dummy, transducer, and restraint system experts. They defined the specifications for a small adult (5th percentile) female dummy, a large adult (95th percentile) male dummy, and a 6-year-old child dummy having the same level of biofidelity and measurement capacity as the Hybrid III midsize adult male dummy. Key body segment lengths and weights were defined based on anthropometry data for the U.S. population, Table 4.2 [59]. Biofidelity response requirements for the head, neck, thorax, and knee of each size of dummy were scaled from the respective biofidelity requirements of the Hybrid III midsize adult male dummy [10, 11]. The instrumentation for each dummy is listed in Table 4.1. The dummies became commercially available in 1991.

Table 4.2

Key dimensions and weights for various sizes of dummies [11, 12, 14]

	Infant dummies			Child dummies			Adult dummies
	6-month	12-month	18-month	3-year	6-year	10-year	Small female	Mid male	Large male
	Key dimensions – mm
Erect sitting height	439	480	505	546	635	719	812	907	971
Buttock to knee	170	198	221	284	381	455	521	589	638
Knee to floor	125^a	155^a	173^a	221	358	432	464	544	595
Shoulder to elbow	130	150	160	193	234	287	305	366	382
Elbow to finger tip	175	198	213	254	310	366	400	465	502
Standing height	671	747	813	953	1,168	1,374	1,513	1,751	1,864
	Weight – kg
Head	2.11	2.47	2.73	3.05	3.47	3.66	3.67	4.54	4.94
Neck	0.30	0.32	0.32	0.40	0.50	0.65	0.77	1.54	2.04
Torso	4.02	4.99	5.75	7.48	10.74	16.66	24.09	40.23	52.89
Upper extremity	0.95	1.18	1.31	1.79	1.87	2.96	4.81	8.53	10.91
Lower extremity	0.42	0.74	1.09	1.79	4.28	8.47	13.38	23.36	31.72
Total	7.80	9.70	11.20	14.51	20.86	32.40	46.72	78.20	102.5

^aCorrected from prior publication

In 1992, the SAE Hybrid III Dummy Family Task Group initiated a program to develop a Hybrid III 3-year-old child dummy. Again, this dummy was designed to have the same level of biofidelity and measurement capacity as the other Hybrid III-type dummies, except for the knee impact requirement and the leg instrumentation [11]. These items were omitted from the design requirements since knee impact is an unlikely event for properly restrained 3-year-old child. Since this dummy was to be designed to replace the GM 3-year-old airbag dummy [12] for evaluating unrestrained child interactions with deploying passenger airbags as well as to be used to assess the efficacy of child restraints, its sternum was instrumented to measure its response to the punch-out forces of deploying passenger airbags. Its instrumentation is summarized in Table 4.1. The dummy became commercially available in 1997.

At its June 15, 2000 meeting, the SAE Hybrid III Dummy Family Task Group initiated a program to develop a Hybrid III 10-year-old child dummy [13]. The dummy was designed to have the same level of biofidelity and measurement capacity as the Hybrid III 6-year-old child dummy. The dummy was designed so it could assume a “normal” or a “slouched” seating posture. Its instrumentation is given in Table 4.1. The dummy was approved for production build at the July 26, 2001 Task Group meeting.

The SAE Hybrid III Dummy Task Group has documented the designs of the Hybrid III small female, large male, 3-year-old, 6-year-old, and 10-year-old dummies so that they could be incorporated into Part 572 of the U.S. Transportation Regulations, replacing their respective Hybrid II dummies. The dummies are well defined, durable and give highly repeatable and reproducible results. To date, all but the large male dummy have been incorporated into Part 572. No large male dummy is specified in Part 572 since the FMVSS 208 Passive Restraint Regulation does not require testing with that size dummy.

4.1.4 CRABI Infant Dummies

In 1990, the Child Restraint Air Bag Interactions (CRABI) Task Group of the SAE Human Mechanical Simulation Subcommittee was convened. The specific purpose of the CRABI Task Group was to develop instrumented 6-month-old, 12-month-old, and 18-month-old infant dummies to be used to assess the injury potential associated with the interactions of deploying passenger airbags with rearward-facing child restraints if they are placed in the front seat of vehicles. These three dummies are called CRABI infant dummies. Prototypes of these dummies were available in 1991. The sizes and weights of the dummies were based on anthropometry studies of the U.S. child population, Table 4.2. Biofidelity response requirements were defined for the head and neck [11]. The instrumentation used with these dummies is given in Table 4.3. The designs of these dummies were documented by the SAE so that they could be incorporated into Part 572 of the U.S. Transportation Regulations. To date, only the CRABI 12-month-old has been incorporated into Part 572.

Table 4.3

Instrumentation of CRABI dummies [3, 11]

	6 month	12 month	18 month
Head
Accel. (A_x, A_y, A_z)	Yes	Yes	Yes
Neck
Head/C1 (F_x, F_y, F_z, M_x, M_y, M_z)	Yes	Yes	Yes
C7/T1 (F_x, F_y, F_z, M_x, M_y, M_z)	Yes	Yes	Yes
Shoulder
Force (F_x, F_z)	No	Yes	Yes
Thorax
Spine accel. (A_x, A_y, A_z)	Yes	Yes	Yes
Abdomen
Lumbar (F_x, F_y, F_z, M_x, M_y, M_z)	Yes	Yes	Yes
Pelvis
Accel. (A_x, A_y, A_z)	Yes	Yes	Yes
Pubic loads (F_x, F_z)	No	Yes	Yes

4.1.5 THOR

In the early 1990s, NHTSA initiated a program to develop an advanced mid-size adult male, frontal impact dummy. Under a NHTSA contract, UMTRI (University of Michigan Transportation Research Institute) developed the TAD-50 M (Trauma Assessment Device) which was a Hybrid III midsize male dummy with modifications made to its thorax, abdomen and pelvis [14–17]. Simultaneously, VRTC (NHTSA’s Vehicle Research and Test Center) was working on new neck and lower extremities designs. The dummy parts from these two projects were merged into an advanced, midsize adult male dummy which NHTSA called THOR (Test Device for Human Occupant Restraint). Early versions of THOR included the THOR alpha (2001), the THOR-FT (2004) and the THOR-NT (2005). The distinguishing features of THOR are its two-segment thoracic spine, a rib cage shaped like a human’s, and passive muscle force simulations for the neck and the ankle structures [18, 19].

In 2004, the SAE THOR Evaluation Task Group was formed with the goal of identifying and recommending dummy enhancements [20]. The task group was disbanded in 2013. Recent modifications, including the mod kit, metric THOR, and SD3 shoulder, have not been thoroughly evaluated by the safety community.

4.1.6 Q Series of Infant and Child Dummies

In 1993, the Netherlands Organization for Applied Technical Research (TNO), was funded by the European Union (EU) to develop a new family of omni-directional child dummies called the Q-series [21–23]. These dummies were to replace the TNO P-Series (Pinocchio-Series), which have been specified in the European regulations since 1981. An international Child Dummy Working Group was formed of experts from research institutes and from child restraint system (CRS) and dummy manufacturers to define design targets for frontal impact responses of the head, neck, thorax, abdomen and lower extremities and for lateral impact responses of the shoulder and pelvis of the Q dummies. Commercially available Q dummies are the Q0, Q1, Q1.5, Q3 and Q6, with anthropometry representing a newborn, 12-month, 18-month, 3-year and 6-year-old, respectively. Their key dimensions and weights are given in Table 4.4. The instrumentation used with these dummies is given in Table 4.5. The Q10, representing a 10-year-old child, is under development by the European EPOCh (Enabling Protection for Older Children) consortium.

Table 4.4

Key dimensions and weights for Q dummies [22]

	Q0	Q1	Q1.5	Q3	Q6
	Key dimensions – mm
Chest depth	90	117	–	145.5	141
Shoulder width	141	227	227	259	305
Hip width	98	191	194	200	223
Buttock to popliteus	–	161	185	253	299
Sitting height	354	479	499	544	601
Standing height	–	740	800	985	1,143
	Weights – kg
Head & neck	1.1	2.41	2.8	3.17	3.94
Torso	1.5	4.46	5.04	6.40	9.62
Upper extremity	0.25	0.89	1.20	1.48	2.49
Lower extremity	0.55	1.82	2.06	3.54	6.90
Total	3.4	9.6	11.1	14.6	22.9

Table 4.5

Instrumentation for Q0, Q1, Q1.5, Q3 and Q6 dummies [22]

	Q0	Q1 & Q1.5	Q3 & Q6
Head
Accel. (A_x, A_y, A_z)	Yes	Yes	Yes
Angular velocity (ω_x, ω_y, ω_z)	No	Optional	Optional
Neck
Head/C1 (F_x, F_y, F_z, M_x, M_y, M_z)	Yes	Yes	Yes
C7/T1 (F_x, F_y, F_z, M_x, M_y, M_z)	Yes	Yes	Yes
Thorax
Spine Accel. (A_x, A_y, A_z)	Yes	Yes	Yes
Ribcage Accel. (A_x, A_y)	No	Optional	Optional
Ribcage deflection (δ_x or δ_y)	No	Yes	Yes
Abdomen
Lumbar (F_x, F_y, F_z, M_x, M_y, M_z)	No	Yes	Yes
Abdomen pressure sensor	No	No	Experimental
Pelvis
Accel. (A_x, A_y, A_z)	Yes	Yes	Yes

4.2 ATDs for Side Impact Testing

4.2.1 SID and SID-HIII

The first Side Impact Dummy (SID) was developed in 1979 by UMTRI under contract with NHTSA [24–27]. SID was based on the Hybrid II midsize male dummy, but its chest structure consists of a hydraulic shock absorber that links five interconnected steel ribs to the spine. SID has no arm or shoulder structure.

Major deficiencies of the SID are the lack of a shoulder load path, no elasticity in the thoracic compliance, and a very heavy rib mass. SID lacks instrumentation to measure neck, shoulder, and abdominal loads and rib deflection [28]. Due to these deficiencies, SID does not provide appropriate data to assess side impact protection [28–36]. Despite these deficiencies, SID was specified by NHTSA as the only dummy to be used to evaluate compliance to the side impact rule, FMVSS 214, which was implemented in 1990. SID was phased-out of FMVSS 214 as a compliance dummy in 2012.

SID-HIII is the SID dummy with its Hybrid II head and neck replaced with Hybrid III head and neck. This improves the biofidelity of its head and neck response and provides for measurement of neck loads as indicated in Table 4.6. In 1998, NHTSA specified SID-HIII as the dummy to be used to evaluate side impact head airbags in the side impact pole test of FMVSS 201.

Table 4.6

Instrumentation for small female and mid-size male side impact dummies [25, 42, 44, 48, 52, 53]

	SID-IIs	WorldSID small female	SID-HIII	BioSID	ES-2 ES-2re	WorldSID midsize male
Head
Accel. (A_x, A_y, A_z)	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes
Neck
Head/C1 (F_x, F_y, F_z, M_x, M_y, M_z)	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes
C7/T1 (F_x, F_y, F_z, M_x, M_y, M_z)	Yes	Yes	No	Yes	Yes	Yes
Shoulder
Force (F_x, F_y, F_z)	Yes	Yes	No	Yes	Yes	Yes
Deflection (δ_y)	Yes	Yes	No	Yes	No	Yes
Upper extremities
Upper arm accel. (A_x, A_y, A_z)	Yes	Yes	No	Yes	No	Yes
Upper arm (F_x, F_y, F_z, M_x, M_y, M_z)	Yes	Yes	No	No	No	Yes
Forearm accel. (A_x, A_y, A_z)	Yes	Yes	No	No	No	Yes
Forearm (F_x, F_y, F_z, M_x, M_y, M_z)	Yes	Yes	No	No	No	Yes
Thorax
Spine accel. (A_x, A_y, A_z)	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes
Rib defl. (δ_y)	Yes	Yes	No	Yes	Yes	Yes
Rib accel. (A_y)	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes
Back plate force (F_x, F_y, M_x, M_y)	No	No	No	No	Yes	No
Abdomen
Force (F_y)	No	No	No	No	Yes	No
Rib defl. (δ_y)	Yes	Yes	No	Yes	No	Yes
Lumbar (F_x, F_y, F_z, M_x, M_y, M_z)	Yes	F_y, F_z, M_x, M_z	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes
Pelvis
Accel. (A_x, A_y, A_z)	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes
Iliac wing (F_y)	Yes	Yes	No	Yes	No	Yes
Sacrum (F_y)	No	No	No	Yes	No	No
Acetabulum (F_y)	Yes	No	No	Yes	No	Yes
Pubic (F_y)	Yes	Yes	No	Yes	Yes	Yes
Lower extremities
Femoral neck (F_x, F_y, F_z)	No	Yes	No	No	No	Yes
Femur (F_x, F_y, F_z, M_x, M_y, M_z)	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes
Tibia (F_x, F_y, F_z, M_x, M_y, M_z)	Yes	Yes	No	Yes	No	Yes

4.2.2 EUROSID and EUROSID-1

In 1986, several European laboratories, Association Peugeot-Renault (APR), the French National Institute for Research in Transportation and Safety (INRETS), the Transport Research Laboratory (TRL) in the United Kingdom, and TNO in the Netherlands, formed an ad-hoc group under the auspices of the European Experimental Vehicle Committee (EEVC) to develop a midsize male side impact dummy called EUROSID [37–39]. Between 1987 and 1989, production prototypes of EUROSID were evaluated worldwide by governments, the car industry, the International Standards Organization (ISO), and the SAE [29, 34–36].

Based on these evaluations, the dummy’s biofidelity, durability, and instrumentation were improved and its name was changed to EUROSID-1 [40]. The final specification for EUROSID-1 was established by EEVC in April 1989 when it was specified for side impact compliance testing by the European Side Impact Regulation ECE R95. It is also specified in the Australian and Japanese Side Impact Regulations. EUROSID-1 instrumentation is listed in Table 4.6.

Major deficiencies of the EUROSID-1 are its marginal biofidelity [30], the flat-topping that can occur on its rib deflection measurement due to binding of the piston rod used to control its rib motion [41] and the lack of neck, iliac, and acetabulum load measurements [28].

4.2.3 BioSID

BioSID (Biofidelic Side Impact Dummy) was developed by SAE for side impact testing in 1989 following international evaluations of SID and EUROSID, which indicated the need for a more biofidelic dummy with additional measurement capability [29, 34, 35]. BioSID was the first dummy designed to the ISO impact response biofidelity guidelines for the head, neck, shoulder, thorax, abdomen, and pelvis [42, 43]. BioSID instrumentation is listed in Table 4.6.

The design of the dummy is well documented and quite durable, resulting in excellent repeatability and reproducibility. BioSID has been commercially available since 1990. While it is an acceptable test device for assessing side impact protection [28, 30, 36], BioSID has never been adopted into a regulation.

4.2.4 ES-2 and ES-2re

EEVC Working Group 12 coordinated an international task force to compile and address the deficiencies with the EUROSID-1 dummy. The ES-2 resulted from that effort [44] and was intended for use as an interim harmonized side impact dummy, until the more advanced WorldSID could be completed. In addition to the EUROSID-1 instrumentation, the ES-2 has upper neck, lower neck, clavicle, back plate, T12, and femur load cells, as noted in Table 4.6. Needle-bearing rib guides were added to reduce rib binding which was a major problem with EUROSID-1 design. The ES-2 demonstrated a slight improvement in biofidelity compared to EUROSID-1 [45]. In 2003, contractors of the 1959 United Nations Agreement on Passive Safety adopted a proposal by GRSP, the government experts on passive safety, to add ES-2 to ECE R95.

The ES-2 was further modified by NHTSA with the addition of rib extensions that provide a smooth surface to transition from the rearward end of the ribs to the lateral edge of the dummy’s backplate, thus preventing the penetration of seatback foam into the gap that exists in the ES-2 [46]. The modified dummy is called ES-2re. As noted in Table 4.6, it has the same instrumentation as the ES-2. Biofidelity of the ES-2 and ES-2re are similar. The ES-2re has been incorporated into Part 572 (Subpart U) and could be used to demonstrate compliance to FMVSS 214 beginning in 2007, when advanced credits could be earned toward the phase-in period for the new rule.

4.2.5 SID-IIs

The SID-IIs is a second generation (II), small (s) SID. SID-IIs has the anthropometry of a small female adult dummy, Table 4.2, but its total weight is less than the Hybrid III small female. SID-IIs has no arm on the non-impacted side and either a stub arm or an instrumented full arm on the impacted side. The dummy was developed to fill the need for a small female test device to evaluate side impact protection countermeasures, notably airbags [48, 49].

The Small Size Advanced Side Impact Dummy Task Group of OSRP first met in January 1994 to define the general characteristics of the SID-IIs. The biofidelity response targets were scaled from ISO targets [48, 50] that were defined for the midsize adult male. Many of the parts from the Hybrid III small adult female were incorporated into the design. The thorax, abdomen, and pelvis structures are scaled versions of the BioSID design. The SID-IIs is extensively instrumented, as noted in Table 4.6. This includes the use of an instrumented arm [51] that has been incorporated into the design. Using the ISO rating scheme [28, 31–33] the SID-IIs biofidelity rating is good and its instrumentation rating is excellent. SID-IIs has been incorporated into Part 572 (Subpart V). Along with the ES-2re, the SID-IIs could be used for FMVSS 214 compliance testing beginning in 2007.

4.2.6 WorldSID

The WorldSID Task Group was formed in 1997 under Working Group 5 of ISO TC22/SC12. Its tri-chair structure had equal funding and representation from Asia-Pacific, Europe, and North America. The first prototype dummy became available for testing in 2001 [52]. However, it took 10 more years to develop a production dummy due to a lengthy development process and an extensive evaluation performed by dummy and instrumentation manufacturers, auto companies and suppliers, governments, and research institutions.

The dummy’s head and the neck are designed to be biofidelic both laterally and fore-aft. Unlike prior side impact dummies, WorldSID’s thorax and abdomen have sagittal plane symmetry, with its inner and outer rib bands attaching to a central spine plate such that the bands are horizontal when the dummy is seated in a vehicle. The upper and lower extremities are unique to WorldSID, with both a full and half arm available and a molded shoe.

WorldSID has the best biofidelity of all midsize male side impact dummies according to both the ISO biofidelity rating [50] and BioRank [47]. WorldSID can be instrumented with more than 170 channels, some of which are listed in Table 4.6.

4.2.7 WorldSID Small Female

Development of the WorldSID 5th female dummy began in 2004 with European Commission 6th Framework project APROSYS [53]. Unlike the midsize male WorldSID, development and evaluation of the female dummy was funded entirely by Europe. Much of the female dummy is scaled from the male design, but differences include the use of 2-dimensional IR-TRACC units throughout the WorldSID small female [54]. Some of the instrumentation available for the WorldSID small female is listed in Table 4.6. The revision 1 of the WorldSID small female met its design goals of good biofidelity, both overall and for each body region. Dummy modifications are being coordinated by the WorldSID 5th Technical Evaluation Group.

4.2.8 Q3s

The Q3s is a 3-year-old side impact dummy, with improved durability and side impact biofidelity compared to the Q3. Early work in developing the Q3s from the Q3 was performed by First Technology Safety Systems [55, 56]. NHTSA and Humanetics Innovative Solutions completed the redesign with significant modifications to the neck, shoulder, thorax, and hip joint. The key dimensions and weights of Q3s are given in Table 4.7 [57]. Instrumentation available for the Q3s includes the instrumentation for the Q3, listed in Table 4.5, plus lateral deflection of the shoulder (δ_y), shoulder forces (F_x, F_y, F_z), and lateral pubic force (F_y). The Q3s is proposed for use in evaluating child restraints in a side impact sled test proposed for FMVSS 213 [58].

Table 4.7

Key dimensions and weights for Q3s [57]

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