Goalie: helmet, mask, throat protector, chest protector, cup, thick padded shin guards, blocker (worn on one hand), trapper (device to catch the puck, worn on the opposite hand), skates that are unique to protect the goal and goalie

Forward and defense: helmet, shoulder pads, elbow pads, padded gloves, cup, breezers (padded hockey pants to protect the sacrum, coccyx, and pelvis), shin guards, and skates

Face masks

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  Full face masks required at youth and high school levels in 1975; Eastern Collegiate Athletic Conference mandated use in 1977; NCAA required use in 1980; helmets required in NHL; visors (half face shields) were required for all players new to the NHL as of the 2013–2014 season. For players entering the NHL before 2013–2014, face masks (visors) remain optional.

  
  
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  Effects of full and half face shields (college level, Canada):

  
  
  
  
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    Full shield: 61.6% had at least one injury

    
    
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    Half shield: 63.2% had at least one injury

    
    
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    Risk of facial, dental injury: 2.3 times greater with half shield

    
    
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    Risk of concussion: Concussion rates are higher in those wearing the half shield compared to those wearing the full face mask.

  
  

Penalties: 2 minute (minor), 5 minute (major), 10 minute (major), or a combination

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  Offending player must sit in a designated penalty box and his or her team must play with one less player on ice (“shorthanded”). If two penalties are assessed against the team, it must play two players short. Team never has to play more than two players short.

  
  
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  For 10-minute penalties, offending team does not have to play shorthanded. They lose services of that player for that time interval.

  
  
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  Single or multiple game disqualifications may be assessed, depending on severity of infraction.

Goaltender protection: no unnecessary body contact with goalie; the “crease” is the goalie-protected area in front of goal where opposing players cannot enter without a puck. If a goaltender loses his helmet, the play is immediately stopped.

Common penalties enforced for protection of players:

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  Cross-checking: using shaft of stick with both hands to check opponent

  
  
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  Hooking: using blade of stick on opponent’s body to block or impede opponent’s progress

  
  
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  Slashing: striking or attempting to strike opponent by swinging stick

  
  
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  Spearing: poking or attempting to poke opponent with blade of stick

  
  
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  Interference: impeding progress of opponent not in control of the puck

  
  
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  Charging: using more than two skating strides to check the opponent

  
  
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  Checking from behind

Officiating: Three to four officials enforce rules, assess penalties, and award goals

Shifts

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  One shift averages 45–90 seconds, with an average of 2–3 play stoppages/shift, lasting an average of 27 seconds.

  
  
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  Average playing time/shift is 40 seconds with recovery of 225 seconds between shifts.

  
  
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  One shift plus recovery averages work capacity of 32 mL/kg/minute (66% of V̇O ₂ max).

  
  
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  Average player plays 14–21 shifts each game with an average playing time of 21–28 minutes/game (based on usual practice of alternating three “lines”).

Energy requirement estimated at two-thirds anaerobic metabolism and one-third aerobic metabolism. On-ice energy requirements of college players is estimated at 70%–80% V̇O ₂ max and youth hockey players is estimated in excess of 80% V̇O ₂ max.

On-ice heart rate averages 152 beats/minute.

Adult elite players average 6400–7200 meters/game (3.9–4.4 miles/game)

Forwards demonstrate more anaerobic activity than other positions; aerobic system primarily used for recovery

Defensemen have longer playing time (33%), more shifts (17%), and longer playing time/shift (21%) but less recovery time between shifts (35%); defensemen average approximately 62% of skating velocity of forwards

Goalie’s quick, explosive movements of short duration with rest periods of submaximal activity use primarily adenosine triphosphate-phosphocreatine (ATP-PC) energy system

However, few physiologic studies of youth hockey (older age groups) had similar findings.

Adult recreational hockey players tend to stay on ice much longer per shift.

Time–motion analyses are based on use of alternating three lines. In adult recreational leagues, only two lines may be used. At collegiate and professional levels, four lines may be used.

Heart-rate telemetry estimates on-ice intensity averaging 70%–80% V̇O ₂ max during a 60-minute stop-time game. For 30 minutes of each game, players’ V̇O ₂ max exceeds 90%. Adult recreational players average heart-rate intensity in excess of 70%.

Glycogen stores decline by an average of 60% for forwards and defensemen after one game.

All muscle fibers (types I, IIa, and IIb) contribute glycogen; type I depletes (contributes) most.

Two-fold increase in plasma free fatty acids suggests mild glycogen-sparing effects in the muscle.

Consecutive-day games usually do not allow complete repletion of glycogen stores (based on diet as desired).

Because anaerobic glycolysis is a major energy contributor, lactate accumulates over course of the game (8- to 10-fold increase). Because approximately 10 minutes are required to remove lactate from exercising muscle, there is inadequate time between shifts for full recovery. Result is mild metabolic acidosis.

Lactate values usually higher in first and second periods; forwards and defensemen have similar levels

Levels actually lower than predicted because each shift is interrupted by average of two to three play stoppages, averaging 27 seconds; this usually allows approximately 60%–65% of phosphocreatine to be resynthesized before the next shift.

Wide range of fiber composition

No difference from general population; no position-to-position variation

Forwards, defensemen, and goalies have similar results in peak power and endurance.

Similar results occurred when younger, less-experienced players were tested.

Although hockey is largely anaerobic, improving aerobic capacity reduces fatigue and may enhance performance. Involvement of anaerobic system may depend on efficiency of the aerobic system.

V̇O ₂ max ranges 52–62 mL/kg/minute. Maximum aerobic capacities of youth hockey players are similar to those of adult players when adjusted for size and weight.

NHL players have shown consistent increase in aerobic capacities over past 15 years presumably because of more effective off- and in-season conditioning strategies.

Professional players were stronger than amateurs based on each of the six tests used for comparison.

Comparing defensemen and forwards at similar levels, data relative to body weight showed these to be equal.

Compared with other sports, hockey players obtained high levels for total and relative leg force. Only elite canoeists and athletes from power events scored higher (Finnish study).

Forwards and defensemen have similar flexibility.

Goalies have significantly better flexibility (key element for that position).

In general, flexibility of hockey players exceeds that of other elite athletes in wrist, hip, knee, and ankle.

Other elite athletes exceed hockey players in flexibility on neck rotation, all shoulder and elbow actions, trunk extension-flexion, and lateral flexion.

Hockey players at risk of fatigue; activities of ice skating require use of all major muscle groups. Hockey has heavy metabolic demands for energy and removal of waste products of energy metabolism.

Studies of fatigue in hockey show failure of return of maximal muscle contractions to pre-exercise levels at 24 hours. Loss of ability to generate maximal force affects athlete’s ability to perform peak-force activities to accelerate, stop, and turn.

On-ice practice and game play may not provide sufficient stimulus to maintain or improve fitness among hockey players.

Studies suggest that additional aerobic activities may be necessary during competitive seasons.

Programs that have failed to improve skating speed: leg squats using weights; pushing partner as technique of resistance skating; speed skating with instruction; skating with ankle weights

Six-week preseason training program consisting of continuous running, stair running, flexibility, and strength training resulted in 11% increases in V̇O ₂ max. During subsequent season, gains in oxygen consumption were lost in absence of any specific in-season aerobic training program.

Hockey training stimulates improvement in cardiovascular conditioning similar to that of continuous training programs in untrained players. In fit elite players, there were no improvements in cardiovascular fitness over course of the season.

Hockey practice observations show 20 minutes of actual skating during 60-minute practice. Heart rate monitoring, however, provided sufficient stimulus for aerobic training effects.

Anaerobic endurance improved over course of the season by approximately 16% but not associated with increases in glycolytic enzymes

Muscular fatigue over 6-day routine of practices and games showed decrements in maximal voluntary muscle contractions, implying fatigue. Levels decreased through first 3 days, then reached plateau at a level lower than the baseline. After hockey practice, muscle output remains diminished over the practice–game cycle.

Dietary composition: protein, 14%–20.5%; carbohydrate, 38%–44%; and fat, 34%–43%

Average daily intake is 2800–4900 calories.

Ice arenas usually have lower ambient temperatures than other athletic settings, which minimize the risk of heat-related injury.

Hockey protective equipment reduces the ability to dissipate heat.

Despite hydration between periods and shifts, hockey players lose 2–3 kg body weight through sweat each game.

Shorter shifts result in higher contribution of phosphocreatine and oxidative phosphorylation to ATP (energy source) turnover, reducing contribution of anaerobic glycolysis, which reduces consumption of muscle glycogen.

Shorter shifts result in less lactate accumulation in exercising muscles. Lactate accumulation causes muscles to be inefficient and fatigue more readily. If lactate levels are lower, lactate clears more quickly, and muscles recover more quickly.